II.

Common Characteristics

Because Asia encompasses so many countries and cultures, generalizations about Asian theater can be simplistic and misleading. Although common characteristics exist, they may not apply to every genre. However, several aspects merit mention. First, much Asian theater has its origin in some form of religious ritual. In addition, nearly all forms of Asian theater require a lengthy training period for performers. Finally, most Asian theater combines several art forms.

Much of traditional theater in Asia arose from religious ritual—and in many cases still resembles it. Religious ritual and theater share certain elements of performance, including stylized speech, gesture, costumes, music, and dance. An actor may also be a priest or shaman (a religious figure who communes with or calls forth spirits), thus representing the continuity between humanity and the spirit world. Also, performers may fall into a trance or appear to become possessed by supernatural spirits during performances. Examples of theater figures who become entranced include puppet masters in Javanese wayang kulit, performers in Myanmar’s nat pwe, and actors in Balinese barong.

A.

Ritual and Religious Elements

The main difference between shamanism (rituals that involve spirits) and theatrical performance lies in the purpose. Shamans depend upon a shared belief that rituals will change the course of nature—for example, by healing people or by guaranteeing a good harvest. Theatrical performers remain outside that social purpose, aiming instead at providing skilled entertainment.

Many religions have contributed to Asian theater. In South and Southeast Asia, the major religions include Hinduism and Buddhism. The Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, which revolve around gods such as Krishna and Rama and heroes such as Arjuna, have been adapted for the theater in a number of countries in those regions. Buddhist Jataka tales, which tell of the previous lives of the Buddha, also have numerous theatrical adaptations. In East Asia, Mahayana Buddhism, Daoism (Taoism), and Shinto are the significant religions. East Asian dramas often feature ethical conflicts, divided loyalty, or concerns about the afterlife rather than specific religious content. Confucianism is more a moral philosophy than a religion, but it, too, has shaped theater forms.

The fusion of religious and cultural practices is often evident in Asian theater. For example, Japanese nō exhibits both Buddhist and Shinto elements. Cambodia and Thailand dramatize the Hindu deity Rama as an incarnation of Buddha, and Indonesia, which is largely Islamic, offers masked dramas of spirit possession as well as Arabic, Hindu, and Buddhist tales. But not all Asian theater is religious in nature. Throughout Asia, there are also plays dealing with romantic love and other subjects, intended to entertain.

B.

Transmission from Master to Disciple

Most forms of Asian theater highlight the actor, who obtains mastery only after a lifetime of practice. Demanding training begins in early childhood. Students study specific performance techniques from skilled masters for years before approaching scripts or appearing in performance. For example, training for the Indian dance-drama known as kathakali involves painful massage, which provides the physical flexibility required for kathakali’s demanding contortions. The performers must also master complex eye, mouth, and facial movements and about 600 hand gestures that carry specific meanings.

Because performances are based on recognized conventions, they reinforce community by presenting a familiar, orderly universe and a shared heritage. One of the greatest compliments a fan may shout to a Japanese kabuki actor is, “You’re as good as your father was!” This concept is in direct opposition to the Western premium placed on individuality and originality on stage.

C.

Blurring Between Genres and Cultures

Wars, colonization, and trade in Asia over several thousand years have blurred the boundaries of countries, languages, and religions. Theater, too, reflects this blurring of borders; no specific genre is exclusive to one locale. In contrast to Western theater, most Asian theater genres mix various types of performance. A Western audience attends a concert, dance performance, or play. But in Asia such genres as masked-dance dramas or sung-danced-and-spoken operas are common.