I.

Introduction

Pharaoh (Egyptian “great house”), name originally used by the ancient Egyptians for the palace of their king. Beginning in the 18th Dynasty (1550-1307 bc) it was applied by extension to the king himself. The pharaoh was the religious, civil, and military leader of Egypt. The living pharaoh was associated with the god Horus. Egypt’s early rulers were known as Horus-kings; in time, Egyptians came to believe that the pharaoh was the embodiment of Horus. After death the pharaoh became identified with Osiris, the god who ruled the realm of the dead.

II.

The Pharaoh’s Dual Nature

The pharaoh possessed a dual nature whose two aspects were inextricably bound. The pharaoh was at the same time a sacred individual—the son of the Egyptian sun god Ra—and a human ruler, the legitimate successor to Horus. However, despite enormous powers, the pharaoh became a god only after death. After favorable divine judgment, the pharaoh became joined with the god Osiris in the next world.

III.

The Pharaoh’s Powers

During their reigns, Egypt’s pharaohs wielded an absolute power that was centered on their being. They exercised power in both the spiritual and worldly realms. Considered the only intercessors between the human world and the world of the gods, pharaohs occupied the position of the leading priest of the kingdom. In this role pharaohs were responsible for ensuring the order of the universe and the smooth running of the cosmos, from guiding the Sun in its daily path across the sky to managing the rise and retreat of the Nile flood waters and the gathering of the harvest.

As the person who guaranteed the unity of the Egyptian kingdom, the pharaoh held all political, judicial, and military powers. Current affairs were dealt with by a powerful and highly organized administrative bureaucracy. At the top of the hierarchy was the vizier, who was viewed as the eyes and ears of the pharaoh. Although some powers might be delegated to the vizier, the pharaoh always maintained personal control of the army.

IV.

Symbols of Egyptian Royalty

The different powers of the pharaoh were symbolized by various attributes. The pschent was a double crown that symbolized the unification of Upper Egypt (a white crown) and Lower Egypt (a red crown) and served as a reminder of the pharaoh’s dominance over both. The uraeus, a stylized cobra that offered protection, rose up on the front of the crown or as an amulet on the forehead. A scepter in the pharaoh’s hand was a symbol of strength, while a crook and a flail crossed over the pharaoh’s chest were emblems associated with Osiris. The shepherd’s crook may have indicated that the pharaoh was guardian of his flock. On the chin a false beard of goat hair provided another link with the god Osiris and was a sign of the pharaoh’s divine status. When not wearing a crown, the pharaoh often wore a nemes, a striped headdress that tied in back and had two panels that hung down at the side of the face.

V.

Pharaonic Egypt

During the history of ancient Egypt, 31 dynasties of pharaohs succeeded one another on the Egyptian throne. The Pharaonic Period of Egyptian history spanned thousands of years and is generally thought to end with the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 bc. Among the most renowned pharaohs are Thutmose I, Thutmose II, and Ramses II, all of whom increased Egypt’s power and territory.