II.

Constitutional Origins

The framers of the Constitution of the United States designed the Senate to be more stable and insulated from popular sentiment than the House of Representatives (often called simply the House). “The use of the Senate,” explained statesman James Madison in 1787, “is to consist in proceeding with more coolness, with more system, and with more wisdom, than the popular branch.” Senators serve six-year terms, in contrast to the two-year terms of representatives. Only one-third of the Senate runs for office in each election, giving it more continuity than the House, where the entire membership is elected every two years. Members of the House have always been popularly elected, but senators were appointed by state legislatures until 1913. Keeping the selection of Senate members out of voters’ hands, the framers reasoned, would help the Senate focus on the country’s broad interests and keep it from becoming mired in short-term political shifts. The 17th Amendment to the Constitution gave voters the power to select the Senate through direct elections.

The framers of the Constitution also designed the Senate to protect state interests, particularly the interests of states with small populations. To equalize small and large states, the Constitution guarantees two senators to each state, regardless of population. The Senate now has 100 members, two each for states that range in population from California (more than 33 million people) to Wyoming (fewer than 500,000 people). The Senate tends to overrepresent the least populous states at the expense of more populous states. The House of Representatives, in contrast, allocates seats to the states according to population.

The 1787 Constitutional Convention devised the special characteristics of the Senate after the delegates rejected James Madison’s Virginia Plan, which proposed that the Senate be appointed by the House of Representatives. Madison’s plan would have granted more power to the states with large populations. The Constitutional Convention delegates also rejected William Paterson’s New Jersey Plan, which proposed one legislative body instead of two, with equal representation from each state regardless of size. This arrangement would have favored the smaller states. The resulting settlement, known as the Great Compromise or Connecticut Compromise, favored small states in the Senate and large states in the House, and delegated special powers to each.