I.

Introduction

Bilingual Education, application of specialized educational techniques to enhance the learning opportunities of students whose native language differs from the predominant language of instruction. These students are referred to as language minority students, and they are found throughout the world. Bilingual education has received considerable research and public policy attention in the United States because of the continued presence of large numbers of non-English speaking immigrants. Language minority students in the United States are often called limited English proficient (LEP) students. Estimates of LEP students range from 2.5 million to 4.6 million, which equals about 7 to 10 percent of the U.S. student population. These students represent more than 180 distinct language groups.

Prior to 1900, bilingual education programs in German, French, Italian, and Spanish existed throughout the United States. In 1900 more than 600,000 elementary school students—about 4 percent of the primary school population—received instruction at least partly in German. Such programs declined in use during the early 1900s, however, when waves of anti-immigrant feeling led to restrictions on the use of languages other than English in classrooms. In the 1960s, a resurgence of interest in bilingual education accompanied the arrival in Florida of Spanish-speaking refugees from Cuba.

II.

U.S. Laws on Bilingual Education

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Educational Opportunity Act of 1974 (EEOA) established minimum standards for the education of LEP students in public schools. Title VI prohibited discrimination by schools on the basis of race, color, sex, or national origin. The EEOA declared that no state could deny educational opportunities to any student because of language barriers.

In 1968 the U.S. Congress passed the Bilingual Education Act. This law defined bilingual education as instruction in a child’s native language that facilitates progress through the educational system. Congress has reauthorized the act five times, most recently in 1994.

The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Lau v. Nichols (1974) mandated language support for students lacking proficiency in English. The decision stated that providing instruction only in English does not constitute equal treatment for such students. In order to learn, students must have the ability to engage in meaningful discourse with other students and teachers. Therefore, requiring mastery of basic English skills prior to participating in the educational process unfairly handicaps LEP students.

Although federal law requires schools to help LEP students understand classroom instruction, it does not specify the techniques schools may use to meet this mandate. Schools generally offer two basic kinds of educational programs to meet the needs of LEP students: bilingual education and English as a Second Language (ESL). Schools with ESL programs provide instruction by teachers trained to teach students whose native language is not English. ESL teachers conduct instruction in English in a way that is understandable for non-native English speakers. Schools often provide ESL programs when they have too few students who share the same native language to offer bilingual instruction. Some schools offer both ESL and bilingual educational programs. In 1994, 76 percent of public schools in the United States with LEP student enrollments provided ESL programs and 36 percent had bilingual education programs.

III.

Controversy over Bilingual Education

Debate about bilingual education centers on whether it is legitimate for LEP students to receive a substantial amount of their instruction in their native language rather than in English. Supporters of bilingual instruction believe that students should gain confidence in using their native language before being introduced to the English curriculum. They believe that competency in one’s native language provides important cognitive and social foundations for second language learning and academic learning in general.

Opponents of bilingual education believe that if LEP students are taught English at an early stage in their education, they will gain an advantage in both learning and language. Opponents advocate minimal use of the minority student’s native language and introduction to the English curriculum at the onset of the student’s schooling experience.

During the 1980s, opposition to bilingual education was fueled by a political movement that became known as “English Only.” Support for this movement came from cultural conservatives who argued that social cohesion and the dissemination of a shared system of values required that citizens use a common language. English Only supporters objected to bilingual education programs because they felt such programs contributed to the social and cultural separation of ethnic and racial groups. By 1988 the movement had spent nearly $18 million in 39 state campaigns to pass legislation making English the official language. The power of the English Only movement diminished during the late 1980s with revelations of links between its supporters and organizations advocating immigration restrictions, population control, and eugenics.

IV.

Recent Developments

Support for English Only laws resurfaced during the mid-1990s. In 1996 the United States House of Representatives passed the English Language Empowerment Act, a proposed law that would have restricted the use of languages other than English in the provision of any governmental services, including instruction in public schools. The bill never became law, however, because the Senate did not pursue similar legislation.

In the absence of national laws restricting bilingual education, some states have imposed their own limits on programs designed for students with limited English skills. In 1998 California voters overwhelmingly approved an anti-bilingual-education initiative, Proposition 227. California traditionally has had more students in bilingual education than has any other state. Proposition 227, entitled English for All Children, essentially eliminated bilingual education programs in the state’s public schools in favor of mandatory one-year programs of immersion in English. Under the new restrictions, California’s 1.4 million students with limited English skills will be placed in regular classes after receiving the one-year English immersion course. Opponents of the measure challenged Proposition 227 in both state and federal courts.