III.

Origins and History

Euro-American traditions of magic have deep and complex roots. Some spells and practices can be traced back to ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome, particularly those spells and practices related to spiritual evocation, gemstones, and numbers (see Pythagoras). During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), science, religion, and magic often were not clearly distinguished in either Judaism or Christianity. In medieval Europe, ancient magical traditions became deeply intertwined with the Jewish mystical system called Kabbalah and also with surviving pre-Christian folk magic, which involved a wide assortment of spells, charms, customs, and beliefs.

From the 15th century to the 18th century, during the period of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Age of Enlightenment, the relationship between science and magic underwent a fundamental readjustment as Western society entered the scientific era. The Renaissance at first seemed to promise a rebirth of magic. Intellectuals such as Italian philosopher Pico della Mirandola rediscovered classical philosophy, including its occultist and magical practices, and protoscientists such as German physician Paracelsus affirmed these practices, partly in defiance of medieval religiosity. Both the Roman Catholic church and the new Protestantism, however, turned more sharply than ever against magic and the occult arts. One result of this turn was the torture and burning of women accused of witchcraft—that is, the practice of magic. At the same time, science was gradually constructing a model for understanding the world that appeared to undercut the main premises of magic, particularly the theory of correspondences. By the end of the 18th century, magic had few serious adherents among the educated classes.

Folk magic and “underground” magic, however, have continued. In the Americas, for example, traditional forms of religion that resemble magic have mingled with West African practices to produce living institutions like Vodun (also spelled Vodou or voodoo) and Santería, both of which combine a robust religious world view with magical practices. From the sociological and psychological points of view, magic often provides a means of self-affirmation and empowerment for those who feel excluded by the dominant classes of a society and its educational and scientific institutions.

Despite its apparent incompatibility with current scientific thought, magic reflects deeply rooted tendencies of the human mind. The manipulation of symbols is evident not only in religion, but also in art, poetry, politics, rhetoric, and commerce. Ancient magical processes of mind are also reflected to varying degrees in common practices such as the use of mascot figures and the enshrining of photographs and even locks of hair of loved ones on a dresser or mantle. Whereas most people expect that such practices influence only their way of thinking about a particular circumstance, the magician believes that these practices affect external reality.