Battle of Actium, decisive naval engagement fought off the promontory of Actium on September 2, 31 bc, between the Roman fleet of Octavian (later first emperor of Rome as Augustus), under the command of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and a combined Roman-Egyptian fleet commanded by Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The battle represented the culmination of the old rivalry between Antony and Octavian for control of the Roman world and had been preceded by a long period of skirmishing, which included large armies encamped on opposite shores of the Ambracian Gulf. Against the advice of his generals and allegedly at the behest of Cleopatra, who wanted an opportunity to withdraw to Egypt, Antony launched the initial phase of the engagement. His fleet of approximately 220 heavy craft equipped with missile-throwing devices attacked at close range. Octavian's fleet of some 260 light vessels had greater maneuverability. The outcome of the battle remained in doubt until Cleopatra, apparently alarmed by an enemy maneuver, ordered the Egyptian contingent, about 60 vessels, to withdraw. Antony himself followed her, but most of his remaining vessels were soon overtaken and annihilated. The deserted army later surrendered to Octavian.