II.

Land and Resources

The total area of China is 9,571,300 sq km (3,695,500 sq mi) including inland waters. The country stretches across East Asia in a broad arc that has a maximum east-west extent of about 5,000 km (about 3,000 mi). From the country’s northernmost point to the southern tip of Hainan Island, the north-south extent is about 4,000 km (about 2,500 mi). China borders the East China Sea and North Korea on the east; Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan on the north; Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan on the west; and India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Vietnam, and the South China Sea on the south.

China’s vast territory encompasses a great diversity of landscapes. Generally speaking, the land forms three giant steps that descend from high mountains, plateaus, and great basins in the west to a central band of lower mountains, hills, and plateaus, then to lowlands, plains, and foothills near the eastern coast. Deserts and steppes lie across the northwest and north central parts of China.

A.

Natural Regions

According to a Chinese geographic classification scheme, the country may be divided into seven large natural regions: Northeast China, North China, Subtropical East Central China, Tropical South China, Inner Mongolian Grassland, Northwest China, and the Tibetan Plateau (Qing Zang Gaoyuan).

A.1.

Northeast China

Forested mountains surrounding a broad fertile plain characterize Northeast China. This region encompasses Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning provinces at the far northeastern tip of the country. On the west is the Da Hinggan Ling (Greater Khingan Range), mountains about 1,000 m (about 3,000 ft) in elevation, with peaks rising to 1,400 m (4,500 ft). The range slopes gradually to the west, but its eastern flank slopes steeply to the broad Dongbei Pingyuan (Northeast China Plain). The low mountains and hills of the Xiao Hinggan Ling (Lesser Khingan Range) rise from the plain’s northern edge and extend southeast toward the mountains of the Changbai Shan, which enclose the plain on the east.

Northeast China’s forested mountains and hills provide significant timber resources. The black soils that cover much of the central plain create some of China’s most fertile agricultural land. Mineral resources are also significant, with notable petroleum, coal, and iron reserves. The Liaodong Peninsula, extending to the south, is noteworthy for its good natural harbors. At the tip of the peninsula is Dalian, Northeast China’s principal seaport.

A.2.

North China

North China lies between the Mongolian Steppe on the north and the Yangtze River Basin on the south. It stretches west from the Bo Hai gulf and the Yellow Sea to the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Administratively, North China includes Beijing and Tianjin municipalities; Shandong and Shanxi provinces; most of Hebei, Henan, and Shaanxi provinces; and portions of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and of Jiangsu, Anhui, and Gansu provinces.

Humans have lived in the agriculturally rich region of North China for thousands of years and have greatly impacted the landscape, which has been extensively terraced and cultivated. Both human impact and erosion can be seen on the Huangtu Gaoyuan (Loess Plateau) in the northwest. Formed by the accumulation of fine windblown silt known as loess, this once level plateau has become cut by vertical-walled valleys, numerous gullies, and sunken roads. East of the Huangtu Gaoyuan are northeast-trending mountain ranges with elevations of about 1,000 m (about 3,000 ft). The Great Wall lies on the northern ridges of these mountains and marks the region’s traditional northern border. South and east of the mountains lies the Huabei Pingyuan (North China Plain), the largest flat lowland area in China. To the east is the Shandong Plateau on the Shandong Peninsula, consisting of two distinct areas of mountains flanked by rolling hills. The rocky coast of the peninsula provides some good natural harbors.

Fertile soils derived from loess cover the Huabei Pingyuan, which contains almost no native vegetation, having been cleared for cultivation centuries ago. Level basins between the mountains have also been converted for agricultural purposes. However, where humans have not cleared the land for agriculture or development, forests of mostly deciduous trees can be found. Coniferous forests thrive at higher elevations, and mountaintops have shrubby alpine meadows. North China contains the country’s main coal reserves, and important petroleum deposits lie offshore in the Bo Hai gulf.

A.3.

Subtropical East Central China

Subtropical East Central China is the country’s largest and most populous natural region. It encompasses about a quarter of China’s area and includes three traditional divisions: Central China, South China, and Southwest China. Subtropical China embraces the economically rich Yangtze Valley and stretches west from the Yellow Sea to the southeastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The Qin Ling mountains mark the region’s northern border. Administratively, the region includes Shanghai and Chongqing municipalities; Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Sichuan, and Guizhou provinces; Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; the majority of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; the southern parts of Jiangsu, Anhui, and Henan provinces; and the northern sections of Fujian, Guangdong, and Yunnan provinces.

The Yangtze Valley consists of a series of basins with fertile alluvial soils. These lowlands are crisscrossed with natural and artificial waterways, and dotted with lakes. To the west is the Sichuan Basin, a relatively isolated area of hilly terrain enclosed by several mountain ranges. The Sichuan Basin is noteworthy for its intensive terraced farming. Further west is the deeply eroded Yunnan Plateau, which is bordered by a series of mountain ranges separated by deep, steep-walled gorges. One of the world’s most scenic landscapes is found in Guizhou and Guangxi Zhuang, where the surface limestone rock has weathered into towering domes, pillar-like peaks, and other unusual shapes. To the east are the largely deforested and severely eroded Nan Ling hills. Along China’s southeastern coast are rugged highlands, where bays with numerous offshore islands provide good natural harbors. Lying south of the Nan Ling hills is the Xi Jiang Basin, a predominantly hilly area with infertile soils. However, fertile, flat-floored alluvial valleys border the numerous rivers of this region. One of the most important is the broad delta plain of the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River), which is sometimes called the Canton Delta.

A.4.

Tropical South China

China’s smallest natural region is Tropical South China. It consists of a thin stretch of land southwest of the Zhu Jiang delta that extends west along the South China Sea and continues along China’s border with Southeast Asia. Tropical South China also includes Hainan Island and other nearby islands. Administratively, the region includes Hainan Province and the far southern portions of Guangdong Province, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, and Yunnan Province. The distinguishing features of this region are its luxuriant tropical vegetation and warm, humid climate. Mountains and hills characterize the entire region, although they are lower in the east.

A.5.

Inner Mongolian Grassland

The Inner Mongolian Grassland runs along the Sino-Mongolian border, stretching east from the Helan Shan mountains of Northwest China to the Da Hinggan Ling of Northeast China. The region’s traditional southern boundary is marked by the Great Wall. Administratively, the region includes Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, the majority of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and the far northern portion of Hebei Province. The Inner Mongolian Grassland includes China’s portion of the Mongolian Steppe, a grassy plain that extends from northern China well into Mongolia. Much of the region consists of desert terrain, where the land is covered with rock and sand and supports almost no vegetation. The Chinese describe this landscape as a gobi, or stony desert. The region is notable for its large coal reserves.

A.6.

Northwest China

Northwest China is geographically and historically closely related to Central Asia. It features tall mountains, glaciers, deserts, broad basins, and streams with no outlet to the sea. From east to west, Northwest China extends from the Inner Mongolian Grasslands to the country’s northwestern border. The region’s southern boundary is the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Administratively, the region includes the vast majority of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, and small portions of Gansu Province and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.

Northwest China includes the lofty Tian Shan mountains and three basins—the Junggar Pendi in the north, the Tarim Pendi in the south, and the smaller Turpan Pendi near the southeastern edge of the Tian Shan. Although the Junggar Pendi contains areas of sandy and stony desert, it is primarily a region of fertile steppe soils and supports irrigated agriculture. The Tarim Pendi contains the vast, sandy Takla Makan, the driest desert in Asia. Dune ridges in its interior rise to elevations of about 100 m (about 330 ft). The Turpan Pendi, the largest area in China with elevations below sea level, commands the southern entrance of a major pass through the Tian Shan.

A.7.

The Tibetan Plateau

Occupying the remote southwestern portion of China is the high, mountain-rimmed Tibetan Plateau (Qing Zang Gaoyuan). Administratively, this region includes all of Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province and parts of Sichuan Province, Yunnan Province, Gansu Province, and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

The Tibetan Plateau is the world’s highest plateau region, with an average elevation of about 4,500 m (about 14,800 ft). Bordering mountain systems include the Himalayas on the south, the Pamirs and Karakoram Range on the west, and the Qilian Shan and Kunlun Mountains on the north. On China’s border with Nepal is Mount Everest (Chomolungma), the highest peak in the world at 8,850 m (29,035 ft). The surface of the Tibetan Plateau is dotted with salt lakes and marshes. Crossed by several mountain ranges, it contains the headwaters of many major southern and eastern Asian rivers, including those of the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mekong, Yangtze (Chang Jiang), and Huang He (Yellow River). The landscape is bleak, barren, and rock strewn. Along the northern margins of the Tibetan Plateau where it merges into the northwestern steppe and desert is the Qaidam Pendi, a large depression that extends from east to west. The Qaidam Pendi consists of mountains, hills, stony and sandy deserts, playas (desert basins that periodically fill with water), and salt marshes.

B.

Rivers and Lakes

All the major river systems of China, including the three longest—the Yangtze, Huang He, and Xi Jiang—flow generally west to east and drain into the Pacific Ocean. In all, about 50 percent of the total land area drains to the Pacific. About 10 percent of the country’s area drains to the Indian Ocean and Arctic Ocean. The remaining 40 percent has no outlet to the sea. Instead, these areas drain to the arid basins of the west and north, where the streams evaporate or percolate to form deep underground water reserves. Principal among these rivers is the Tarim.

China’s northernmost major stream is the Amur River (Heilong Jiang), which forms most of the northeastern boundary with Russia. The Songhua (Sungari) and Liao rivers and their tributaries drain most of the Dongbei Pingyuan (Northeast China Plain) and its surrounding highlands.

The major river of North China is the Huang He (Yellow River). It rises in the marginal highlands of the Tibetan Plateau and follows a circuitous course to the Bo Hai gulf, draining an area more than twice the size of France. The Huang He is sometimes referred to as “China’s Sorrow” because throughout history it has periodically devastated large areas by flooding. The river is diked in its lower course, and silt accumulation has elevated its bed above the surrounding plain. To help control the periodic flooding, China constructed the Xiaolongdi Dam near the city of Luoyang, Henan Province.

The Yangtze River of Central China is one of the world’s greatest rivers. The longest river in Asia, it has a vast drainage basin of more than 1.8 million sq km (700,000 sq mi), about 20 percent of China’s total area. The Yangtze rises near the source of the Huang He and enters the sea at Shanghai. It is a major transportation artery. The river’s Three Gorges Dam, under construction in Hubei Province, will be the world’s largest dam when completed. As planned, this controversial project will create a reservoir approximately 650 km (approximately 400 mi) long, submerging numerous towns and archaeological sites and requiring the relocation of more than 1 million people. Proponents of the dam claim that the hydroelectric station will reduce China’s reliance on coal burning, a more polluting source of energy. Serving the major port of Guangzhou (Canton) are the estuarine lower reaches of the Xi Jiang, the most important river system of South China.

Most of China’s important lakes (hu) lie along the middle and lower Yangtze Valley. The two largest in the middle portion are Dongting Hu and Poyang Hu. In summer, when melted snow is carried downstream from the mountains, these lakes increase significantly in area and serve as natural reservoirs for excess water. Tai Hu is the largest of several lakes in the Yangtze delta, and Hongze Hu and Gaoyou Hu lie just to the north of the delta. Many saline lakes, some of considerable size, dot the Tibetan Plateau. The largest is the marshy Qinghai Hu in the less elevated northeast, but the high plateau contains several others nearly as large. In the arid northwest and in the Mongolian Steppe are a number of large lakes, most of which are also saline; principal among these are Lop Nur and Bosten Hu, east of the Tarim Pendi. Ulansuhai Nur, which is fed by the Huang He, is in Inner Mongolia; Hulun Nur lies west of the Da Hinggan Ling in Northeast China. In addition to numerous natural lakes, China has more than 2,000 reservoirs that have been constructed primarily for irrigation and flood control.

C.

Coastline

China’s coastline covers approximately 14,500 km (approximately 9,010 mi) from the Bo Hai gulf on the north to the Gulf of Tonkin on the south. Most of the northern half is low lying, although some of the mountains and hills of Northeast China and the Shandong Peninsula extend to the coast. The southern half is more irregular. In Zhejiang and Fujian provinces, for example, much of the coast is rocky and steep. South of this area the coast becomes less rugged: Low mountains and hills extend more gradually to the coast, and small river deltas are common.

D.

Plant Life

As a result of the wide range of climates and topography, China is rich in plant species. However, much of the original vegetation in densely populated eastern China has been removed during centuries of settlement and intensive cultivation. Natural forests are generally preserved only in the more remote mountainous areas.

Tropical South China’s dense rain forests contain broadleaf evergreens, some more than 50 m (160 ft) tall, intermixed with palms. Subtropical East Central China is especially rich in plant species: Oak, ginkgo, bamboo, pine, azalea, camellia, laurel, and magnolia all grow here. Forests often have dense undergrowth of smaller shrubs and bamboo thickets. Conifers and mountain grasses dominate at higher elevations.

The area north of the subtropical Yangtze Valley was once an extensive broadleaf deciduous forest, similar to that of the eastern United States. The principal species remaining are varieties of oak, ash, elm, and maple. China’s most important timber reserves are in the mountains of Northeast China, where there are extensive tracts of coniferous forest dominated by larch. The Dongbei Pingyuan, now under cultivation, was once covered by forest steppe vegetation—grasses interspersed with trees.

In the eastern portion of the Mongolian Steppe, drought-resistant grasses grow, although overgrazing and soil erosion have depleted much of the region’s vegetation. Arid Northwest China is characterized by clumps of herbaceous plants and grasses separated by extensive barren areas; salt-tolerant species dominate here. The Tibetan Plateau, especially at lower elevations with greater humidity, contains tundra vegetation, consisting of grasses and flowers. In more-favored locations throughout the arid regions, larger shrubs and even trees may grow, and many mountain areas contain spruce and fir forests.

E.

Animal Life

The diverse habitats in China support a wide range of fauna, from arctic species in Northeast China and Tibet to many tropical species in southern China. Some species that have become extinct elsewhere still survive in China. Among these are great paddlefishes of the Yangtze River, species of alligator and salamander, giant pandas (found only in southwestern China), and Chinese water deer (found only in China and Korea).

Tropical South China has large populations of several types of primates, including gibbons and macaques. Antelope, chamois, wild horses, deer, and other hoofed animals inhabit the uplands and basins of the west and northwest.

Small carnivores are numerous throughout the country. These include foxes, wolves, raccoon dogs, and civets. China also has several species of large carnivores, including bears, tigers, and leopards, but they are few in numbers and confined to remote areas. Leopard species are distributed at the peripheries of the heavily populated areas: Leopards are found in Northeast China, snow leopards in Tibet, and clouded leopards in the extreme south. The many species of birds include pheasants, peacocks, parrots, herons, and cranes. Many wild species are under increasing threat due to the growing human population and the loss of native habitat.

Over the centuries humans have domesticated several types of beasts of burden that are adapted to the varied conditions. Water buffalo are important draft animals in the tropical and subtropical south; camels are used in the arid north and west; horses are important on the Mongolian Steppe; and mules are common in North China. On the frigid Tibetan Plateau, domesticated yaks are important as draft animals and for their milk, fur, and meat.

Marine life is abundant, especially along the southeastern coast, and includes flounder, cod, tuna, cuttlefish, sea crabs, prawns, and dolphins. The rivers of China contain carp, salmon, trout, sturgeon, catfish, and the Chinese river dolphin.

F.

Natural Resources

China has a great variety of mineral resources, some deposits of considerable size. Along with substantial land and water assets, these deposits give the country a generous natural resource base for industrialization and economic development. As China’s population and economy grow, and as industrialization and modernization proceed rapidly, demand for natural resources will increase. Per capita consumption of minerals, energy, food, and fiber is rising at a faster rate than overall economic growth. This pressure on available resources will likely accelerate the push to discover new resources and improve the efficiency of use of existing supplies.

F.1.

Mineral Resources

Mineral deposits are distributed widely throughout the country. The principal mining regions are in Northeast China, especially on the Liaodong Peninsula and in the uplands of South China.

Among metallic mineral ores, iron-ore reserves are estimated to be more than 40 billion metric tons. The largest deposits—mainly in Northeast China, northern Hebei Province, and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region—are mostly of low quality. Some high-grade deposits of hematite (an important iron ore) occur in Liaoning and Hubei provinces. Extensive deposits have also been discovered on Hainan Island. Reserves of aluminum ores, occurring mainly in Liaoning and Shandong provinces, are estimated at more than 1 billion metric tons. Tin reserves, found primarily in Yunnan Province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, are perhaps as much as 2 million metric tons. The country’s production of refined tin amounts to more than one-third of the world’s output. China holds the world’s largest reserves of antimony, magnesite, and tungsten. Antimony is found mainly in Hunan Province, magnesite in the Liaodong Peninsula, and tungsten in the highlands north of the Xi Jiang (West River).

China holds abundant reserves of molybdenum, mercury, and manganese. There are also substantial reserves of lead, zinc, and copper. Uranium has been discovered in several areas, principally in Northeast and Northwest China. Other resources occurring in considerable quantities are fluorite, mica, phosphate rock, quartz, salt, silica, and talc.

China is well endowed with energy resources. The estimated coal reserves of 115 billion metric tons are among the world’s largest. Most coal is in Northeast China and adjacent areas of North China. Oil reserves, some of which are offshore, are estimated at 18.3 billion barrels (2006). Major oil deposits are located in Northeast China; in Hebei, Shandong, Shaanxi, Gansu, and Qinghai provinces; and in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Oil-shale deposits are located primarily in Liaoning and Guangdong provinces. China also has substantial proven reserves of natural gas, often found in association with oil.

F.2.

Land and Water Resources

Compared to most countries, China has extensive land and water resources because it covers such a vast area. However, much of the country is unproductive. According to government statistics, only 15 percent of the country’s total area is arable, or suitable for cultivation, although unofficial estimates suggest that this percentage is too low. Slope land and other farmland may escape official counting because local farmers may underreport the size of their leased land. Farmers must meet government quotas for food grain based on the size of their leased land, so those who underreport their land size would deliver a smaller percentage of their harvest to the government. Such activity is illegal, however, and the extent to which it is practiced is unknown.

Over centuries China’s large population has placed tremendous pressure on forest resources. The Huabei Pingyuan (North China Plain), for example, once contained large deciduous forests, but most of the plain was cleared for agriculture long ago. Local forests have long served as a source for firewood in rural areas and for lumber and other wood products used in construction and furniture making. More recently, an increased demand for paper has also pressured forestland. As a result of these pressures, forests now cover only 21 percent of the country’s total area, compared with 33 percent in the United States and 34 percent in Canada. The limited forestland in China has serious consequences. Without sufficient forest coverage, soil is more easily saturated by precipitation and runoff from melting snow. The saturation causes accelerated soil erosion and flooding, which in turn increases the amount of sediment that accumulates in deltas and reservoirs. However, China has an aggressive tree planting program, and in recent years the amount of forestland has actually increased.

China’s water resources are enormous, especially in central, southern, and southeastern China, but the pressure on these resources is also great. Crop irrigation and the demand for water in urban areas reduce the supply. The tapping of groundwater has lowered water tables and led to an invasion of salt in groundwater near coastal areas. In recent years, so much water has been taken from the Huang He (Yellow River) for irrigation that at times the river runs dry near its mouth. Some major dam projects, such as the Three Gorges Dam, may have unforeseen environmental consequences and are controversial within the country.

G.

Climate

China is similar to the United States in terms of the range of weather conditions. China’s climates, however, tend to be more extreme, and regional contrasts are generally greater. In addition, southeastern coastal China and the island of Hainan extend into the tropics and have considerable precipitation associated with the summer monsoon (prevailing winds).

The Asian monsoon exerts the primary control on China’s climate. In winter, cold, dry winds blow clockwise east and south from the high-pressure system of central Siberia, bringing cold, dry conditions to much of North and Central China north of the Yangtze River. In summer, warm, moist air blows inland from the Pacific Ocean. Typhoons are common between July and November, bringing high winds and heavy rains to the coastal areas. Amounts of precipitation decline rapidly with distance from the sea and on leeward sides of mountains. The remote basins of Northwest China receive little precipitation.

A subtropical climate prevails in most of Central, South, and Southwest China. Summer temperatures in this region average 26°C (79°F); the average winter temperature is 4°C (39°F). The extreme south and southwest have tropical climates, with average July temperatures of 28°C (82°F) and average January temperatures of 17°C (63°F). The mountainous plateaus and basins in the southwest also have subtropical climates, with considerable local variation. The higher elevations cause the summers to be cooler, and winters are mild because the mountains protect the plateaus and basins from northerly winds. The Sichuan Basin, which has an 11-month growing season, is noted for high humidity and cloudiness. Rainfall, especially abundant in summer, exceeds 990 mm (39 in) annually in nearly all parts of southern China.

North China experiences a cold, dry winter and a warm, rainy summer. At Beijing, the average January temperature is -5°C (23°F) and the average July temperature is 26°C (79°F). Annual precipitation totals are less than 760 mm (30 in) and decrease to the northwest, which has a drier climate. Year-to-year variability of precipitation in these areas is great; this factor, combined with occasional dust storms and hailstorms, can negatively impact agricultural yields.

The climate of Northeast China is similar to, but colder than, that of North China. January temperatures average -20°C (-4°F) at Harbin, while July temperatures average 23°C (73°F). Rainfall, concentrated in summer, averages between about 510 and 760 mm (about 20 and 30 in) in the east but declines to about 300 mm (about 12 in) west of the Da Hinggan Ling.

Desert and steppe climates prevail in the Mongolian Steppe and Northwest China. January temperatures average below -10°C (14°F) everywhere except in the Tarim Pendi. July temperatures generally exceed 20°C (68°F). Most of the area receives less than 100 mm (4 in) of precipitation.

The Tibetan Plateau has an arctic or near-arctic climate because of its high elevation: At Lhasa, July temperatures average 15°C (59°F), and January temperatures average -2°C (28°F). The air is clear and dry throughout the year, with annual precipitation totals of less than 100 mm (4 in) everywhere except in the extreme southeast.

H.

Environmental Issues

Environmental degradation is a concern throughout China. Feeding and housing the country’s huge population, which grows by millions of people each year, strain already limited land and water resources. Economic growth also fuels increased demand for those resources.

Among the country’s most serious environmental challenges is the decline of arable farmland. As the population and economy have grown, the demand for new houses, commercial buildings, transportation arteries, factories, and other land uses associated with modernization has caused rapid urban growth. Typically, cities are located in the middle of the best farmland, which is being consumed by urban growth. Population and economic growth also have reduced the habitat for China’s wild animals and native flora. Even areas that were previously inaccessible and remote are now threatened.

Water quality, pollution, and access are also serious environmental issues. In the north and northwest most farmland is irrigated, and in the south, rice farming requires perennial irrigation. As streams become increasingly polluted with pesticides, herbicides, raw sewage, and industrial and urban effluent, the use of irrigation waters becomes ever more problematic. Urban water supplies can be treated to remove solid materials and to kill germs, but other toxic materials may become health threats.

Air pollution is also an increasingly serious problem. Coal supplies about three-quarters of China’s electricity, but the process of burning coal produces carbon dioxide (CO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and other environmentally harmful emissions. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that collects in the Earth’s atmosphere and traps heat. Sulfur dioxide mixes with moisture in the atmosphere and forms acid rain, which eventually falls to Earth, damaging crops, forests, and streams.

China is installing pollution control devices in some of the largest power and industrial plants. Investing in cleaning up energy supplies and production processes makes economic sense, because the improvements will permit China to consume energy much more efficiently. A decline in China’s huge population would also help reduce China’s pollution problems because there would be less demand for food, energy, and housing. Government policies, particularly those since the late 1970s, have promoted smaller families, and the population growth rate has declined, but the total population will continue to grow for at least the next generation.

Clifton W. Pannell reviewed the Land and Resources section of this article and wrote the individual subsections on Natural Resources and Environmental Issues.