I.

Introduction

China, officially the People’s Republic of China (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo), country in East Asia, the world’s largest country by population and one of the largest by area, measuring about the same size as the United States. The Chinese call their country Zhongguo, which means “Central Country” or “Middle Kingdom.” The name China was given to it by foreigners and is probably based on a corruption of Qin (pronounced “chin”), a Chinese dynasty that ruled during the 3rd century bc.

China proper centers on the agricultural regions drained by three major rivers—the Huang He (Yellow River) in the north, the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) in central China, and the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) in the south. The country’s varied terrain includes vast deserts, towering mountains, high plateaus, and broad plains. Beijing, located in the north, is China’s capital and its cultural, economic, and communications center. Shanghai, located near the Yangtze, is the most populous urban center, the largest industrial and commercial city, and mainland China’s leading port.

One-fifth of the world’s population—1.3 billion people—live in China. More than 90 percent of these are ethnic Han Chinese, but China also recognizes 55 national minorities, including Tibetans, Mongols, Uighurs, Zhuang, Miao, Yi, and many smaller groups. Even among the ethnic Han, there are regional linguistic differences. Although a common language called Putonghua is taught in schools and used by the mass media, local spoken languages are often mutually incomprehensible. However, the logographic writing system, which uses characters that represent syllables or words rather than pronunciation, makes it possible for all Chinese dialects to be written in the same way; this greatly aids communication across China.

In ancient times, China was East Asia’s dominant civilization. Other societies—notably the Japanese, Koreans, Tibetans, and Vietnamese—were strongly influenced by China, adopting features of Chinese art, food, material culture, philosophy, government, technology, and written language. For many centuries, especially from the 7th through the 14th century ad, China had the world’s most advanced civilization. Inventions such as paper, printing, gunpowder, porcelain, silk, and the compass originated in China and then spread to other parts of the world.

China’s political strength became threatened when European empires expanded into East Asia. Macao, a small territory on China’s southeastern coast, came under Portuguese control in the mid-16th century, and Hong Kong, nearby, became a British dependency in the 1840s. In the 19th century, internal revolts and foreign encroachment weakened China’s last dynasty, the Qing, which was finally overthrown by Chinese Nationalists in 1911. Over the course of several decades, the country was torn apart by warlords, Japanese invasion, and a civil war between the Communists and the Nationalist regime of the Kuomintang, which established the Republic of China in 1928.

In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party won the civil war and established the People’s Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland. The Kuomintang fled to the island province of Taiwan, where it reestablished the Nationalist government. The Nationalist government controlled only Taiwan and a few outlying islands but initially retained wide international recognition as the rightful government of all of China. Today, most countries recognize the PRC on the mainland as the official government of China. However, Taiwan and mainland China remain separated by different administrations and economies. Therefore, Taiwan is treated separately in Encarta Encyclopedia. In general, statistics in this article apply only to the area under the control of the PRC.

After coming to power in 1949, the Communist government began placing agriculture and industry under state control. Beginning in the late 1970s, however, the government implemented economic reforms that reversed some of the earlier policies and encouraged foreign investment. As a result of the reforms of the 1980s and 1990s, the Chinese economy grew almost 10 percent a year from 1980 to 2005, making it one of the largest economies in the world in the early 21st century.

In 1997 Hong Kong was transferred from Britain to China under an agreement that gave the region considerable autonomy. Portugal recognized Macao as Chinese territory in the late 1970s and negotiated the transfer of Macao’s administration from Portugal to China in 1999. Macao, too, was guaranteed a special degree of autonomy.

Patricia Ebrey contributed the introduction to this article.

II.

Land and Resources

The total area of China is 9,571,300 sq km (3,695,500 sq mi) including inland waters. The country stretches across East Asia in a broad arc that has a maximum east-west extent of about 5,000 km (about 3,000 mi). From the country’s northernmost point to the southern tip of Hainan Island, the north-south extent is about 4,000 km (about 2,500 mi). China borders the East China Sea and North Korea on the east; Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan on the north; Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan on the west; and India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Vietnam, and the South China Sea on the south.

China’s vast territory encompasses a great diversity of landscapes. Generally speaking, the land forms three giant steps that descend from high mountains, plateaus, and great basins in the west to a central band of lower mountains, hills, and plateaus, then to lowlands, plains, and foothills near the eastern coast. Deserts and steppes lie across the northwest and north central parts of China.

A.

Natural Regions

According to a Chinese geographic classification scheme, the country may be divided into seven large natural regions: Northeast China, North China, Subtropical East Central China, Tropical South China, Inner Mongolian Grassland, Northwest China, and the Tibetan Plateau (Qing Zang Gaoyuan).

A.1.

Northeast China

Forested mountains surrounding a broad fertile plain characterize Northeast China. This region encompasses Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning provinces at the far northeastern tip of the country. On the west is the Da Hinggan Ling (Greater Khingan Range), mountains about 1,000 m (about 3,000 ft) in elevation, with peaks rising to 1,400 m (4,500 ft). The range slopes gradually to the west, but its eastern flank slopes steeply to the broad Dongbei Pingyuan (Northeast China Plain). The low mountains and hills of the Xiao Hinggan Ling (Lesser Khingan Range) rise from the plain’s northern edge and extend southeast toward the mountains of the Changbai Shan, which enclose the plain on the east.

Northeast China’s forested mountains and hills provide significant timber resources. The black soils that cover much of the central plain create some of China’s most fertile agricultural land. Mineral resources are also significant, with notable petroleum, coal, and iron reserves. The Liaodong Peninsula, extending to the south, is noteworthy for its good natural harbors. At the tip of the peninsula is Dalian, Northeast China’s principal seaport.

A.2.

North China

North China lies between the Mongolian Steppe on the north and the Yangtze River Basin on the south. It stretches west from the Bo Hai gulf and the Yellow Sea to the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Administratively, North China includes Beijing and Tianjin municipalities; Shandong and Shanxi provinces; most of Hebei, Henan, and Shaanxi provinces; and portions of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and of Jiangsu, Anhui, and Gansu provinces.

Humans have lived in the agriculturally rich region of North China for thousands of years and have greatly impacted the landscape, which has been extensively terraced and cultivated. Both human impact and erosion can be seen on the Huangtu Gaoyuan (Loess Plateau) in the northwest. Formed by the accumulation of fine windblown silt known as loess, this once level plateau has become cut by vertical-walled valleys, numerous gullies, and sunken roads. East of the Huangtu Gaoyuan are northeast-trending mountain ranges with elevations of about 1,000 m (about 3,000 ft). The Great Wall lies on the northern ridges of these mountains and marks the region’s traditional northern border. South and east of the mountains lies the Huabei Pingyuan (North China Plain), the largest flat lowland area in China. To the east is the Shandong Plateau on the Shandong Peninsula, consisting of two distinct areas of mountains flanked by rolling hills. The rocky coast of the peninsula provides some good natural harbors.

Fertile soils derived from loess cover the Huabei Pingyuan, which contains almost no native vegetation, having been cleared for cultivation centuries ago. Level basins between the mountains have also been converted for agricultural purposes. However, where humans have not cleared the land for agriculture or development, forests of mostly deciduous trees can be found. Coniferous forests thrive at higher elevations, and mountaintops have shrubby alpine meadows. North China contains the country’s main coal reserves, and important petroleum deposits lie offshore in the Bo Hai gulf.

A.3.

Subtropical East Central China

Subtropical East Central China is the country’s largest and most populous natural region. It encompasses about a quarter of China’s area and includes three traditional divisions: Central China, South China, and Southwest China. Subtropical China embraces the economically rich Yangtze Valley and stretches west from the Yellow Sea to the southeastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The Qin Ling mountains mark the region’s northern border. Administratively, the region includes Shanghai and Chongqing municipalities; Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Sichuan, and Guizhou provinces; Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; the majority of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; the southern parts of Jiangsu, Anhui, and Henan provinces; and the northern sections of Fujian, Guangdong, and Yunnan provinces.

The Yangtze Valley consists of a series of basins with fertile alluvial soils. These lowlands are crisscrossed with natural and artificial waterways, and dotted with lakes. To the west is the Sichuan Basin, a relatively isolated area of hilly terrain enclosed by several mountain ranges. The Sichuan Basin is noteworthy for its intensive terraced farming. Further west is the deeply eroded Yunnan Plateau, which is bordered by a series of mountain ranges separated by deep, steep-walled gorges. One of the world’s most scenic landscapes is found in Guizhou and Guangxi Zhuang, where the surface limestone rock has weathered into towering domes, pillar-like peaks, and other unusual shapes. To the east are the largely deforested and severely eroded Nan Ling hills. Along China’s southeastern coast are rugged highlands, where bays with numerous offshore islands provide good natural harbors. Lying south of the Nan Ling hills is the Xi Jiang Basin, a predominantly hilly area with infertile soils. However, fertile, flat-floored alluvial valleys border the numerous rivers of this region. One of the most important is the broad delta plain of the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River), which is sometimes called the Canton Delta.

A.4.

Tropical South China

China’s smallest natural region is Tropical South China. It consists of a thin stretch of land southwest of the Zhu Jiang delta that extends west along the South China Sea and continues along China’s border with Southeast Asia. Tropical South China also includes Hainan Island and other nearby islands. Administratively, the region includes Hainan Province and the far southern portions of Guangdong Province, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, and Yunnan Province. The distinguishing features of this region are its luxuriant tropical vegetation and warm, humid climate. Mountains and hills characterize the entire region, although they are lower in the east.

A.5.

Inner Mongolian Grassland

The Inner Mongolian Grassland runs along the Sino-Mongolian border, stretching east from the Helan Shan mountains of Northwest China to the Da Hinggan Ling of Northeast China. The region’s traditional southern boundary is marked by the Great Wall. Administratively, the region includes Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, the majority of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and the far northern portion of Hebei Province. The Inner Mongolian Grassland includes China’s portion of the Mongolian Steppe, a grassy plain that extends from northern China well into Mongolia. Much of the region consists of desert terrain, where the land is covered with rock and sand and supports almost no vegetation. The Chinese describe this landscape as a gobi, or stony desert. The region is notable for its large coal reserves.

A.6.

Northwest China

Northwest China is geographically and historically closely related to Central Asia. It features tall mountains, glaciers, deserts, broad basins, and streams with no outlet to the sea. From east to west, Northwest China extends from the Inner Mongolian Grasslands to the country’s northwestern border. The region’s southern boundary is the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Administratively, the region includes the vast majority of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, and small portions of Gansu Province and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.

Northwest China includes the lofty Tian Shan mountains and three basins—the Junggar Pendi in the north, the Tarim Pendi in the south, and the smaller Turpan Pendi near the southeastern edge of the Tian Shan. Although the Junggar Pendi contains areas of sandy and stony desert, it is primarily a region of fertile steppe soils and supports irrigated agriculture. The Tarim Pendi contains the vast, sandy Takla Makan, the driest desert in Asia. Dune ridges in its interior rise to elevations of about 100 m (about 330 ft). The Turpan Pendi, the largest area in China with elevations below sea level, commands the southern entrance of a major pass through the Tian Shan.

A.7.

The Tibetan Plateau

Occupying the remote southwestern portion of China is the high, mountain-rimmed Tibetan Plateau (Qing Zang Gaoyuan). Administratively, this region includes all of Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province and parts of Sichuan Province, Yunnan Province, Gansu Province, and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

The Tibetan Plateau is the world’s highest plateau region, with an average elevation of about 4,500 m (about 14,800 ft). Bordering mountain systems include the Himalayas on the south, the Pamirs and Karakoram Range on the west, and the Qilian Shan and Kunlun Mountains on the north. On China’s border with Nepal is Mount Everest (Chomolungma), the highest peak in the world at 8,850 m (29,035 ft). The surface of the Tibetan Plateau is dotted with salt lakes and marshes. Crossed by several mountain ranges, it contains the headwaters of many major southern and eastern Asian rivers, including those of the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mekong, Yangtze (Chang Jiang), and Huang He (Yellow River). The landscape is bleak, barren, and rock strewn. Along the northern margins of the Tibetan Plateau where it merges into the northwestern steppe and desert is the Qaidam Pendi, a large depression that extends from east to west. The Qaidam Pendi consists of mountains, hills, stony and sandy deserts, playas (desert basins that periodically fill with water), and salt marshes.

B.

Rivers and Lakes

All the major river systems of China, including the three longest—the Yangtze, Huang He, and Xi Jiang—flow generally west to east and drain into the Pacific Ocean. In all, about 50 percent of the total land area drains to the Pacific. About 10 percent of the country’s area drains to the Indian Ocean and Arctic Ocean. The remaining 40 percent has no outlet to the sea. Instead, these areas drain to the arid basins of the west and north, where the streams evaporate or percolate to form deep underground water reserves. Principal among these rivers is the Tarim.

China’s northernmost major stream is the Amur River (Heilong Jiang), which forms most of the northeastern boundary with Russia. The Songhua (Sungari) and Liao rivers and their tributaries drain most of the Dongbei Pingyuan (Northeast China Plain) and its surrounding highlands.

The major river of North China is the Huang He (Yellow River). It rises in the marginal highlands of the Tibetan Plateau and follows a circuitous course to the Bo Hai gulf, draining an area more than twice the size of France. The Huang He is sometimes referred to as “China’s Sorrow” because throughout history it has periodically devastated large areas by flooding. The river is diked in its lower course, and silt accumulation has elevated its bed above the surrounding plain. To help control the periodic flooding, China constructed the Xiaolongdi Dam near the city of Luoyang, Henan Province.

The Yangtze River of Central China is one of the world’s greatest rivers. The longest river in Asia, it has a vast drainage basin of more than 1.8 million sq km (700,000 sq mi), about 20 percent of China’s total area. The Yangtze rises near the source of the Huang He and enters the sea at Shanghai. It is a major transportation artery. The river’s Three Gorges Dam, under construction in Hubei Province, will be the world’s largest dam when completed. As planned, this controversial project will create a reservoir approximately 650 km (approximately 400 mi) long, submerging numerous towns and archaeological sites and requiring the relocation of more than 1 million people. Proponents of the dam claim that the hydroelectric station will reduce China’s reliance on coal burning, a more polluting source of energy. Serving the major port of Guangzhou (Canton) are the estuarine lower reaches of the Xi Jiang, the most important river system of South China.

Most of China’s important lakes (hu) lie along the middle and lower Yangtze Valley. The two largest in the middle portion are Dongting Hu and Poyang Hu. In summer, when melted snow is carried downstream from the mountains, these lakes increase significantly in area and serve as natural reservoirs for excess water. Tai Hu is the largest of several lakes in the Yangtze delta, and Hongze Hu and Gaoyou Hu lie just to the north of the delta. Many saline lakes, some of considerable size, dot the Tibetan Plateau. The largest is the marshy Qinghai Hu in the less elevated northeast, but the high plateau contains several others nearly as large. In the arid northwest and in the Mongolian Steppe are a number of large lakes, most of which are also saline; principal among these are Lop Nur and Bosten Hu, east of the Tarim Pendi. Ulansuhai Nur, which is fed by the Huang He, is in Inner Mongolia; Hulun Nur lies west of the Da Hinggan Ling in Northeast China. In addition to numerous natural lakes, China has more than 2,000 reservoirs that have been constructed primarily for irrigation and flood control.

C.

Coastline

China’s coastline covers approximately 14,500 km (approximately 9,010 mi) from the Bo Hai gulf on the north to the Gulf of Tonkin on the south. Most of the northern half is low lying, although some of the mountains and hills of Northeast China and the Shandong Peninsula extend to the coast. The southern half is more irregular. In Zhejiang and Fujian provinces, for example, much of the coast is rocky and steep. South of this area the coast becomes less rugged: Low mountains and hills extend more gradually to the coast, and small river deltas are common.

D.

Plant Life

As a result of the wide range of climates and topography, China is rich in plant species. However, much of the original vegetation in densely populated eastern China has been removed during centuries of settlement and intensive cultivation. Natural forests are generally preserved only in the more remote mountainous areas.

Tropical South China’s dense rain forests contain broadleaf evergreens, some more than 50 m (160 ft) tall, intermixed with palms. Subtropical East Central China is especially rich in plant species: Oak, ginkgo, bamboo, pine, azalea, camellia, laurel, and magnolia all grow here. Forests often have dense undergrowth of smaller shrubs and bamboo thickets. Conifers and mountain grasses dominate at higher elevations.

The area north of the subtropical Yangtze Valley was once an extensive broadleaf deciduous forest, similar to that of the eastern United States. The principal species remaining are varieties of oak, ash, elm, and maple. China’s most important timber reserves are in the mountains of Northeast China, where there are extensive tracts of coniferous forest dominated by larch. The Dongbei Pingyuan, now under cultivation, was once covered by forest steppe vegetation—grasses interspersed with trees.

In the eastern portion of the Mongolian Steppe, drought-resistant grasses grow, although overgrazing and soil erosion have depleted much of the region’s vegetation. Arid Northwest China is characterized by clumps of herbaceous plants and grasses separated by extensive barren areas; salt-tolerant species dominate here. The Tibetan Plateau, especially at lower elevations with greater humidity, contains tundra vegetation, consisting of grasses and flowers. In more-favored locations throughout the arid regions, larger shrubs and even trees may grow, and many mountain areas contain spruce and fir forests.

E.

Animal Life

The diverse habitats in China support a wide range of fauna, from arctic species in Northeast China and Tibet to many tropical species in southern China. Some species that have become extinct elsewhere still survive in China. Among these are great paddlefishes of the Yangtze River, species of alligator and salamander, giant pandas (found only in southwestern China), and Chinese water deer (found only in China and Korea).

Tropical South China has large populations of several types of primates, including gibbons and macaques. Antelope, chamois, wild horses, deer, and other hoofed animals inhabit the uplands and basins of the west and northwest.

Small carnivores are numerous throughout the country. These include foxes, wolves, raccoon dogs, and civets. China also has several species of large carnivores, including bears, tigers, and leopards, but they are few in numbers and confined to remote areas. Leopard species are distributed at the peripheries of the heavily populated areas: Leopards are found in Northeast China, snow leopards in Tibet, and clouded leopards in the extreme south. The many species of birds include pheasants, peacocks, parrots, herons, and cranes. Many wild species are under increasing threat due to the growing human population and the loss of native habitat.

Over the centuries humans have domesticated several types of beasts of burden that are adapted to the varied conditions. Water buffalo are important draft animals in the tropical and subtropical south; camels are used in the arid north and west; horses are important on the Mongolian Steppe; and mules are common in North China. On the frigid Tibetan Plateau, domesticated yaks are important as draft animals and for their milk, fur, and meat.

Marine life is abundant, especially along the southeastern coast, and includes flounder, cod, tuna, cuttlefish, sea crabs, prawns, and dolphins. The rivers of China contain carp, salmon, trout, sturgeon, catfish, and the Chinese river dolphin.

F.

Natural Resources

China has a great variety of mineral resources, some deposits of considerable size. Along with substantial land and water assets, these deposits give the country a generous natural resource base for industrialization and economic development. As China’s population and economy grow, and as industrialization and modernization proceed rapidly, demand for natural resources will increase. Per capita consumption of minerals, energy, food, and fiber is rising at a faster rate than overall economic growth. This pressure on available resources will likely accelerate the push to discover new resources and improve the efficiency of use of existing supplies.

F.1.

Mineral Resources

Mineral deposits are distributed widely throughout the country. The principal mining regions are in Northeast China, especially on the Liaodong Peninsula and in the uplands of South China.

Among metallic mineral ores, iron-ore reserves are estimated to be more than 40 billion metric tons. The largest deposits—mainly in Northeast China, northern Hebei Province, and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region—are mostly of low quality. Some high-grade deposits of hematite (an important iron ore) occur in Liaoning and Hubei provinces. Extensive deposits have also been discovered on Hainan Island. Reserves of aluminum ores, occurring mainly in Liaoning and Shandong provinces, are estimated at more than 1 billion metric tons. Tin reserves, found primarily in Yunnan Province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, are perhaps as much as 2 million metric tons. The country’s production of refined tin amounts to more than one-third of the world’s output. China holds the world’s largest reserves of antimony, magnesite, and tungsten. Antimony is found mainly in Hunan Province, magnesite in the Liaodong Peninsula, and tungsten in the highlands north of the Xi Jiang (West River).

China holds abundant reserves of molybdenum, mercury, and manganese. There are also substantial reserves of lead, zinc, and copper. Uranium has been discovered in several areas, principally in Northeast and Northwest China. Other resources occurring in considerable quantities are fluorite, mica, phosphate rock, quartz, salt, silica, and talc.

China is well endowed with energy resources. The estimated coal reserves of 115 billion metric tons are among the world’s largest. Most coal is in Northeast China and adjacent areas of North China. Oil reserves, some of which are offshore, are estimated at 18.3 billion barrels (2006). Major oil deposits are located in Northeast China; in Hebei, Shandong, Shaanxi, Gansu, and Qinghai provinces; and in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Oil-shale deposits are located primarily in Liaoning and Guangdong provinces. China also has substantial proven reserves of natural gas, often found in association with oil.

F.2.

Land and Water Resources

Compared to most countries, China has extensive land and water resources because it covers such a vast area. However, much of the country is unproductive. According to government statistics, only 15 percent of the country’s total area is arable, or suitable for cultivation, although unofficial estimates suggest that this percentage is too low. Slope land and other farmland may escape official counting because local farmers may underreport the size of their leased land. Farmers must meet government quotas for food grain based on the size of their leased land, so those who underreport their land size would deliver a smaller percentage of their harvest to the government. Such activity is illegal, however, and the extent to which it is practiced is unknown.

Over centuries China’s large population has placed tremendous pressure on forest resources. The Huabei Pingyuan (North China Plain), for example, once contained large deciduous forests, but most of the plain was cleared for agriculture long ago. Local forests have long served as a source for firewood in rural areas and for lumber and other wood products used in construction and furniture making. More recently, an increased demand for paper has also pressured forestland. As a result of these pressures, forests now cover only 21 percent of the country’s total area, compared with 33 percent in the United States and 34 percent in Canada. The limited forestland in China has serious consequences. Without sufficient forest coverage, soil is more easily saturated by precipitation and runoff from melting snow. The saturation causes accelerated soil erosion and flooding, which in turn increases the amount of sediment that accumulates in deltas and reservoirs. However, China has an aggressive tree planting program, and in recent years the amount of forestland has actually increased.

China’s water resources are enormous, especially in central, southern, and southeastern China, but the pressure on these resources is also great. Crop irrigation and the demand for water in urban areas reduce the supply. The tapping of groundwater has lowered water tables and led to an invasion of salt in groundwater near coastal areas. In recent years, so much water has been taken from the Huang He (Yellow River) for irrigation that at times the river runs dry near its mouth. Some major dam projects, such as the Three Gorges Dam, may have unforeseen environmental consequences and are controversial within the country.

G.

Climate

China is similar to the United States in terms of the range of weather conditions. China’s climates, however, tend to be more extreme, and regional contrasts are generally greater. In addition, southeastern coastal China and the island of Hainan extend into the tropics and have considerable precipitation associated with the summer monsoon (prevailing winds).

The Asian monsoon exerts the primary control on China’s climate. In winter, cold, dry winds blow clockwise east and south from the high-pressure system of central Siberia, bringing cold, dry conditions to much of North and Central China north of the Yangtze River. In summer, warm, moist air blows inland from the Pacific Ocean. Typhoons are common between July and November, bringing high winds and heavy rains to the coastal areas. Amounts of precipitation decline rapidly with distance from the sea and on leeward sides of mountains. The remote basins of Northwest China receive little precipitation.

A subtropical climate prevails in most of Central, South, and Southwest China. Summer temperatures in this region average 26°C (79°F); the average winter temperature is 4°C (39°F). The extreme south and southwest have tropical climates, with average July temperatures of 28°C (82°F) and average January temperatures of 17°C (63°F). The mountainous plateaus and basins in the southwest also have subtropical climates, with considerable local variation. The higher elevations cause the summers to be cooler, and winters are mild because the mountains protect the plateaus and basins from northerly winds. The Sichuan Basin, which has an 11-month growing season, is noted for high humidity and cloudiness. Rainfall, especially abundant in summer, exceeds 990 mm (39 in) annually in nearly all parts of southern China.

North China experiences a cold, dry winter and a warm, rainy summer. At Beijing, the average January temperature is -5°C (23°F) and the average July temperature is 26°C (79°F). Annual precipitation totals are less than 760 mm (30 in) and decrease to the northwest, which has a drier climate. Year-to-year variability of precipitation in these areas is great; this factor, combined with occasional dust storms and hailstorms, can negatively impact agricultural yields.

The climate of Northeast China is similar to, but colder than, that of North China. January temperatures average -20°C (-4°F) at Harbin, while July temperatures average 23°C (73°F). Rainfall, concentrated in summer, averages between about 510 and 760 mm (about 20 and 30 in) in the east but declines to about 300 mm (about 12 in) west of the Da Hinggan Ling.

Desert and steppe climates prevail in the Mongolian Steppe and Northwest China. January temperatures average below -10°C (14°F) everywhere except in the Tarim Pendi. July temperatures generally exceed 20°C (68°F). Most of the area receives less than 100 mm (4 in) of precipitation.

The Tibetan Plateau has an arctic or near-arctic climate because of its high elevation: At Lhasa, July temperatures average 15°C (59°F), and January temperatures average -2°C (28°F). The air is clear and dry throughout the year, with annual precipitation totals of less than 100 mm (4 in) everywhere except in the extreme southeast.

H.

Environmental Issues

Environmental degradation is a concern throughout China. Feeding and housing the country’s huge population, which grows by millions of people each year, strain already limited land and water resources. Economic growth also fuels increased demand for those resources.

Among the country’s most serious environmental challenges is the decline of arable farmland. As the population and economy have grown, the demand for new houses, commercial buildings, transportation arteries, factories, and other land uses associated with modernization has caused rapid urban growth. Typically, cities are located in the middle of the best farmland, which is being consumed by urban growth. Population and economic growth also have reduced the habitat for China’s wild animals and native flora. Even areas that were previously inaccessible and remote are now threatened.

Water quality, pollution, and access are also serious environmental issues. In the north and northwest most farmland is irrigated, and in the south, rice farming requires perennial irrigation. As streams become increasingly polluted with pesticides, herbicides, raw sewage, and industrial and urban effluent, the use of irrigation waters becomes ever more problematic. Urban water supplies can be treated to remove solid materials and to kill germs, but other toxic materials may become health threats.

Air pollution is also an increasingly serious problem. Coal supplies about three-quarters of China’s electricity, but the process of burning coal produces carbon dioxide (CO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and other environmentally harmful emissions. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that collects in the Earth’s atmosphere and traps heat. Sulfur dioxide mixes with moisture in the atmosphere and forms acid rain, which eventually falls to Earth, damaging crops, forests, and streams.

China is installing pollution control devices in some of the largest power and industrial plants. Investing in cleaning up energy supplies and production processes makes economic sense, because the improvements will permit China to consume energy much more efficiently. A decline in China’s huge population would also help reduce China’s pollution problems because there would be less demand for food, energy, and housing. Government policies, particularly those since the late 1970s, have promoted smaller families, and the population growth rate has declined, but the total population will continue to grow for at least the next generation.

Clifton W. Pannell reviewed the Land and Resources section of this article and wrote the individual subsections on Natural Resources and Environmental Issues.

III.

Population

About 20 percent of the world’s population lives in China. Of the country’s inhabitants, about 92 percent are ethnic Han Chinese. The Han are descendants of people who settled the plains and plateaus of northern and central China more than 5,000 years ago, and of people in southern China who were absorbed by the northerners more than 2,000 years ago and gradually adopted a shared culture with them. The remaining 8 percent of China’s population consist of minority nationalities, such as Tibetans and Mongols. Most of the minority nationalities are concentrated in the sparsely settled areas of western and southwestern China.

A.

Population Characteristics

After the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) came to power in 1949, the government took a census to assess the human resources available for the first five-year plan, the state’s comprehensive economic and social development plan. The census, compiled in 1953, counted a population of 582,600,000. A second census, taken in 1964, showed an increase to 694,580,000. The third census, in 1982, revealed a population of 1,008,180,000, making China the first nation with a population of more than 1 billion. By 2007 China’s estimated population was 1,321,851,900.

While China’s population continues to grow, the growth rate has slowed in step with declining fertility and birth rates. The fertility rate (the average number of children born to each woman during her lifetime) declined from 6.2 in the early 1950s to 1.8 in 2007. The birth rate declined from about 45 births per 1,000 people in 1953 to an estimated 13 in 2007, and the death rate dropped from 22 per 1,000 people to an estimated 7. As a result, the annual growth rate declined from about 2.25 percent in 1953 to 0.61 percent in 2007. Nevertheless, at that rate China’s population still grows by millions of people each year. The most serious challenge created by such a large annual population increase is employing the millions of young people who enter the workforce each year. Although China’s economy has grown rapidly, especially since the early 1990s, it has not been able to provide enough good opportunities for all new workers, many of whom have only minimal education and skills.

A.1.

The One-Child Policy

The decrease in fertility rate recorded from the 1950s to the 1990s resulted largely from government efforts. These efforts included promoting late marriages and, after 1979, inducing Chinese couples to have only one child. This one-child policy actually allows for two or more children under some circumstances. In addition to implementing the one-child policy, the state has expanded the number of public health facilities that provide birth-control information and contraceptive devices at little or no cost. Abortion is legal, and pregnant women who already have one or more children face social and administrative pressures to terminate their pregnancies. However, women who belong to one of China’s national minorities may not face the same level of pressure. In general, government policies allow non-Han peoples more cultural independence and permit them to have larger families. This is due to historical trends of high mortality among minorities, Marxist ideology, and the government’s political interest in appearing friendly and sensitive to the needs of China’s ethnic minority peoples.

A consequence of the one-child program has been a higher than normal ratio of males to females. Some families use new methods to identify the sex of unborn fetuses and abort female fetuses in order to ensure the birth of a male. In addition, reports of female infanticide in China have been numerous. The reasons for the preference for boys are complex but lie partly in established cultural traditions. Sons carry on the family name and are responsible for performing ritual obligations of ancestor worship. Perhaps more important, however, sons are expected to care for their parents in old age. Typically, daughters care for their husband’s parents rather than for their own. This care is of concern particularly in rural areas, where the majority of Chinese still live, because the state supplies few, if any, pension benefits in these areas. Consequently, parents who have only one child prefer to have a son to ensure a more comfortable retirement. In 2007 there were 106 males for every 100 females in China. These statistics also reflect other factors, such as lifespan differences between genders; therefore, a more revealing statistic is the ratio of males to females at birth. In China in 2007, the sex ratio was 1.11 males born for each female. By comparison, the rate in Canada was 1.05 males for each female.

A.2.

Population Density

In 2007 China had an overall population density of 142 persons per sq km (367 per sq mi). However, this figure belies the extreme differences between population densities in different parts of the country. The vast majority of people live in the country’s historic heartland—the plateaus, plains, and basins of eastern China. The region’s alluvial floodplains, which have fertile soils and extensive water resources, have always been the most productive food-producing areas. This productivity is reflected in high population densities. In urban areas of eastern China, population densities can exceed more than 2,200 persons per sq km (5,800 per sq mi). By contrast, western China has high mountains and harsh weather conditions. This region is sparsely settled, and large areas have a population density of less than 10 persons per sq km (26 per sq mi).

A.3.

Migration

In the 1950s and 1960s China sought to alleviate the increasing population pressure in the east by encouraging Han people to migrate westward. The government also hoped the migration would help secure the sensitive frontier areas of the west and northwest. These areas lay far from the center of government, and the people who lived there had fewer cultural and historic ties to Beijing. However, Han migration to western China slowed by the end of the 20th century. Most of the population growth there has resulted from a comparatively higher birth rate and declining death rate among non-Han peoples. Meanwhile, the government also sought to control rural-to-urban migration because there were not enough urban jobs for additional city workers. To control the movement of all Chinese citizens, the government instituted a household registration (hukou) system in the late 1950s. Similar to an internal passport system, it allowed no one to move without police permission. Such permission typically was granted only to individuals who had obtained a job in a state-supported enterprise. Most rural people were denied the right to move off their farm or out of their village, even to a neighboring town.

During the political upheavals of China’s Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), the government sent urban youth to rural areas to live and work among the peasants. This program attempted to lessen the perceived differences in income and material well-being between city and countryside. The government was also motivated by its inability to provide sufficient food for the populations of China’s growing cities. Forced migration to the countryside decreased after the death of Communist leader Mao Zedong in 1976. Economic reforms adopted in 1978 virtually eliminated the practice. However, the government still controls migration from rural areas to urban areas through the household registration system.

Beginning in the late 1970s the government permitted limited and temporary migration to the cities. This move came about in part because a booming economy had created the need for unskilled workers in construction and low-level service jobs. As a result of this migration, China’s cities now have two classes of urban citizens. One class works in state-supported enterprises and receives housing, schooling for children, health care, and other subsidies. The other class consists of those who have migrated to cities as transients to work in construction, manufacturing, domestic service, or other low-wage positions. Many temporary migrants do not have proper housing, sanitary facilities, or access to medical care or educational opportunities for their children. Despite these deprivations and difficulties, peasants continue to migrate to cities because they perceive the opportunities for employment and the quality of life to be better. Even so, China’s population remains predominantly rural. In 2005, 59 percent of the total population lived in the countryside.

B.

Principal Cities

China’s cities have a long and important tradition as centers of ceremonial and administrative power. Over the centuries they have evolved into multifunctional commercial and trade centers, and more recently into industrial centers. China has more than 60 cities in which the population of the contiguous built-up urban area exceeds 1 million. (Administratively, many cities also include substantial agricultural land.) China’s major cities include Shanghai, the country’s largest urban area and a major port; Beijing, the capital and cultural center of China; Hong Kong, an island metropolis administered by Britain until 1997; Tianjin, a port city lying at the juncture of the Hai River and the Grand Canal; Shenyang, a center of heavy industry in northeastern China; Wuhan, a port city situated at the confluence of the Han and Yangtze rivers; Guangzhou, a port city on the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River); and Chongqing, a major inland port on the Yangtze River. While all large Chinese cities have significant industrial bases, these cities especially have expanded their service and support economies in recent years.

C.

Ethnic Groups

China’s population comprises many different ethnic groups and nationalities, although about 92 percent of the population are ethnic Han. The name Han derives from the citizens of the Han dynasty (206 bc-ad 220), a period of great unity in China. During the Han dynasty the people of the north, central, and southern plains and basins of eastern China came to see themselves as part of the same group. They shared a common written language, similar values derived from the ideas of Confucius and other classical writers, and a settled agricultural system based on growing grains, such as wheat, rice, and millet. The Han distinguished themselves from other peoples on the region’s periphery whom they considered barbarians, especially the nomads and herding peoples who inhabited the high, dry, colder regions to the north, west, and southwest. Among the most significant of these groups were the Mongols to the north and northwest, the Manchus to the northeast, various Muslim Turkic peoples in the far west, and the Tibetans to the west and southwest. Also in the southwest were large groups of people, such as the Zhuang, who were closely related to either the mountain or plains people of Southeast Asia.

Historically, the Chinese sought to expand their territory through the agricultural colonization of adjacent territory. This strategy involved sending military units and farming families to settle an area. Areas so occupied were eventually integrated into the Chinese state. Local non-Han peoples either adopted the culture and language of the Han, were pushed into marginal areas unsuited for sedentary farming, or were otherwise eliminated. This worked effectively for the Han in areas that were suitable for intensive farming, but it was less effective in the high, dry, cold interior. This interior region, comprising about 60 percent of China’s present land area, remained largely unsettled by the Han until the mid-20th century. Over the centuries some ethnic groups acculturated and integrated into Han society more easily than others. Some, such as the Vietnamese and the Koreans, resisted acculturation. These groups established and maintained their own separate national identities and territories, although they maintained close cultural and other links to the Han.

China’s Communist government has encouraged ethnic Han to settle in the minority-occupied frontier areas. In addition, Han administrators have been sent into all ethnic minority areas to provide leadership and to secure management of the nation’s territory. As part of this policy, the Chinese government has seized territory from the traditional homelands of minority groups and reassigned it administratively to a neighboring Chinese province. Ethnic Tibetans, for example, live mainly in the Tibet Autonomous Region but also in Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, and Yunnan provinces. China’s policies have provided some benefits for the minority groups, including better medicine and nutrition and improved economic development.

Since 1949 China has identified 55 ethnic nationalities, which range in size from several thousand to several million members. Among the larger nationalities are the Zhuang, Hui, Uygur, Mongols, and Tibetans. Taken together, China’s minority peoples account for about 8 percent of the country’s total population. The minorities are growing more rapidly than the Han because they generally have higher birth rates. In addition, some peoples formerly counted among the Han have since been recognized as unique minority groups.

The identification of a minority nationality is based partly on the historical distinction between Han and non-Han. Factors considered include a group’s traditional location in the outlying territories, a different language, unique religious practices, or a distinctive way of life, such as being herders rather than sedentary farmers. Some groups’ physical appearance is very similar to or even indistinguishable from the Han, but they have other special distinctions. For example, Hui people are essentially Han Chinese in all aspects except that they practice Islam.

The Han Chinese have long had familiar but sometimes troubled relations with neighboring ethnic peoples, especially with those under Han administrative and territorial control. Most foreign governments and international organizations understand the security concerns in China’s sensitive frontier regions, where many of these peoples are found. However, China often is condemned for its heavy-handed and sometimes brutal treatment of minority nationalities. Perhaps the best-known occurrence of China’s controversial approach to dealing with minority nationalities is the Chinese military occupation of Tibet in the 1950s. This occupation was followed by an uprising of Tibetans, which the military suppressed. The events in Tibet forced the Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, to flee China in 1959, and he has remained in exile ever since. As a result of the widely published events in Tibet, and particularly the Dalai Lama’s plight, China faced wide international condemnation. The 20th century also saw sporadic outbursts of violence and uprisings among the Uygur peoples of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, many of whom have strongly resented the control imposed on them by Han military and civil officials. Many Uygurs practice traditional oasis agriculture in the Tarim Basin and have not benefited from the industrialization and rapid economic growth that has come with Han settlement of Xinjiang. As China’s economy continues to grow and the country continues to emerge as a global power, it may come under greater pressure to provide fair and equitable treatment to minority nationalities and to allow them a larger measure of autonomy and cultural protection.

D.

Language

More than 90 percent of China’s inhabitants speak Chinese, the language of the Han people, as their native language. Spoken Chinese consists of many regional variants, often called dialects. The Chinese dialects are tonal in nature, meaning that words are assigned a distinctive relative pitch—high or low—or a distinctive pitch contour—level, rising, or falling. Because the regional dialects have different tones and syntax, they are generally mutually unintelligible.

Most Chinese speak one of the Mandarin dialects. Putonghua (“standard speech”), the standard form of Mandarin spoken in Beijing, is China’s official spoken language. Putonghua is spoken by an estimated 70 percent of the population, mainly in northern and central China. It is sometimes known to Westerners as Mandarin. In addition to the Mandarin dialects, there are six other Chinese dialect groups, spoken mainly in southern and southeastern China. They include the Wu dialects, spoken in the Shanghai-Jiangsu-Zhejiang area; the Yue dialects (also known as Cantonese), spoken in Hong Kong and Guangzhou; and the Kejia (Hakka) dialects, spoken in southern Fujian and also in Taiwan and by many people of Chinese descent around the world. This linguistic fragmentation, particularly in southeastern China, has provided the basis for strong regional identity and some ethnic variation within the larger Han community.

Although the Chinese dialects are mutually unintelligible in their spoken forms, they share a common written form. The Chinese written language has existed for more than 3,000 years and has been standardized for more than 2,000 years. It has served as an important social cement, tying together the peoples of northern, central, and southern China. It also has provided an essential element of culture shared by the Han people.

One of the most ambitious efforts of the Chinese Communist government since 1949 has been the modification of the Chinese language. As a means of standardizing the language used by the Han, in 1956 the government declared the dialect of Putonghua the country’s common spoken language. The government also has made efforts to modify the written language. The use of simplified characters—traditional characters written with fewer strokes, or in a type of shorthand—has increased steadily. This simplification is designed to facilitate the government’s goal of increasing literacy. In 1977 the Chinese made a formal request to the United Nations (UN) to have the pinyin (phonetic spelling) method of romanization used to transliterate Chinese place names. The pinyin method was created by the Chinese in the late 1950s and has been steadily modified.

China’s minority people have their own spoken languages, which include Mongolian, Tibetan, Miao (Hmong), Yi, Uygur, and Kazakh. Formerly, many of the minority languages did not have a written form. However, the government has encouraged the development of written scripts for these languages, using pinyin. China’s minority groups are encouraged to maintain traditions that promote knowledge of their ethnolinguistic heritage. Although Putonghua is taught in schools throughout China, it is sometimes taught as a second language. See also Chinese Language.

E.

Religion

The traditional religions of China were Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. People often practiced and adhered to traditions of all three religions as well as incorporating a variety of local beliefs into their religious practice. Islam and Christianity were among the more formal and organized religions practiced in China, but these faiths had fewer followers.

After gaining control in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party officially eliminated organized religion. The CCP’s move received little resistance because Confucianism is largely secular and because most Chinese adhered to aspects of all three major faiths; thus they lacked strong allegiance to any single religion. Most temples, churches, and schools of Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, and Christianity were converted to secular purposes. Only with the constitution of 1978 was official support again given for the promulgation of formal religion in China. The constitution also stated that the Chinese people had the right to hold no religious beliefs and “to propagate atheism.” The constitution of 1982, the most recent constitution, allows citizens freedom of religious belief and protects legitimate religious activities as defined by the state.

Since 1982 many temples, churches, and mosques in China have reopened. Also, officially sanctioned Christian groups in the cities and Buddhist sects in the cities and the countryside have become more active. An underground Christian movement has also emerged. However, as these Christian groups lie outside the official sanction of legitimate religious activities, they are seen as illegal and thus have been prosecuted by the government. Practicing Christians in China include Roman Catholics and members of various Protestant groups.

Even before the constitutional changes, ethnic Chinese Muslims, or Hui, as well as other Muslim minority peoples such as the Uygur, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz, continued their faith in Islam. Although Muslims now may practice their religion more openly, the government is suspicious of their religious activities because Islam is associated with ethnic minorities who have resisted Han control, such as the Uygurs of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. In Tibet, the Chinese government has restricted the practice of Tibetan Buddhism, for instance by limiting the number of clergy and religious buildings in the region. See also Tibet: Religion.

In the early 1990s a man named Hongzhi Li organized a quasi-religious movement called Falun Gong. Falun Gong is based on concepts from traditional Chinese breathing and exercise therapy combined with ideas from Daoism and Buddhism. The movement, which has been remarkably popular in China, disclaims any political goals. It sees itself as simply a loosely organized group of individuals interested in promoting good health and individual powers through exercise and exemplary personal habits. In April 1999 more than 10,000 of Falun Gong’s members gathered in Beijing. The gathering so alarmed China’s Communist Party leadership that the movement was outlawed. Since then, members of Falun Gong have been arrested and prosecuted.

F.

Education

Education has played a major role in China’s long and rich cultural tradition. Throughout much of the imperial period (221 bc-ad 1911), only educated people held positions of social and political leadership. In 124 bc the first state academy was established for training prospective bureaucrats in Confucian learning and the Chinese classics. Historically, however, relatively few Chinese have been able to take the time to learn the complex Chinese writing system and its associated literature. It is estimated that as late as 1949 only 20 percent of China’s population was literate. To the Chinese Communists, this widespread illiteracy was a stumbling block in the promotion of their political programs. Therefore, the Communists combined political propaganda with educational development. By 2005 China’s literacy rate had reached 87 percent, although literacy levels between the sexes were different. The literacy rate for males was 94 percent, whereas the rate among females was only 81 percent. Literacy in China is defined as the ability to read without difficulty.

One ambitious CCP program has been the establishment of universal public education for such a large population. From 1949 to 1951, more than 60 million peasants enrolled in winter schools, or sessions, which were established to take advantage of the slack season for agricultural workers. Communist leader Mao Zedong declared that a primary goal of Chinese education was to reduce the sense of class distinction among the population. This was to be accomplished by reducing the social gaps between the manual and mental laborer; between the city and countryside resident; and between the worker in the factory and the peasant on the land.

The most radical developments in Chinese education, however, took place from 1966 to 1978, during the Cultural Revolution and the years that followed. From 1966 to 1969 the government closed virtually all schools and universities in China. Many of the 131 million youths who had been enrolled in primary and secondary school became involved in Mao’s chaotic efforts to shake up China’s new elite. These efforts involved using students as youthful critics to attack governmental programs and policies. Primary and secondary schools began to reopen in 1968 and 1969, but institutions of higher education did not reopen until the period from 1970 to 1972.

During the Cultural Revolution, government policies toward education changed dramatically. The traditional 13 years of primary and secondary schooling, spanning from kindergarten to 12th grade, were reduced to 9 or 10 years. Colleges that had traditionally had a 4- or 5-year curriculum adopted a 3-year program. Part of these 3 years had to be spent in productive labor in support of the school or the course of study being pursued. A 2-year period of manual labor also became mandatory for most secondary-school graduates who wished to attend college.

Following Mao’s death in 1976, the government began a major review of these policies. As a result, and because of an increased interest in the development of science in Chinese education, curricula came to resemble those of the pre-Cultural Revolution years. Programs for primary and secondary education were gradually readjusted to encompass 12 years of study (although only 9 years were made compulsory). High school graduates were no longer required to go to the countryside for 2 years of labor before competing for college positions. The Cultural Revolution thus resulted in a decade of disruption in China’s educational programs. During this period nearly an entire generation of students simply was not educated or received only a marginal education heavily flavored with the radical politics of the Maoist era.

Since the late 1970s the educational system has changed significantly with the reinstitution of standardized college-entrance examinations. These exams were a regular part of the mechanism for upward mobility in China before the Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, radical leaders eliminated the entrance exams by arguing that they favored an elite who had an intellectual tradition in their families. When colleges reopened between 1970 and 1972, many candidates were granted admission because of their political leanings, party activities, and peer-group support. This method of selection ceased in 1977 as the Chinese launched a new campaign for the so-called Four Modernizations. The stated goals for this campaign, which sought to rapidly modernize agriculture, industry, defense, and science and technology, required high levels of training. Such educational programs by necessity had to be based more on theoretical and formal skills than on political attitudes and the spirit of revolution. However, after students agitated for greater democracy in the 1970s and 1980s, which culminated in the government’s violent crackdown on student protestors in Tiananmen Square in June 1989, university students were again required to complete one year of political education before entering college (see Tiananmen Square Protest).

Chinese higher education is now characterized by the key-point system. Under this system, the most promising students are placed in selected key-point schools, which specialize in training an academic elite. Students finishing secondary school may also attend junior colleges and a variety of technical and vocational schools. Among the most prominent comprehensive universities in China are Peking University (founded in 1898) and Tsinghua University (1911), in Beijing; Fudan University (1905), in Shanghai; Nanjing University (1902); Nankai University (1919), in Tianjin; Wuhan University (1893); Northwest University (1912), in Xi’an; and Sun Yat-Sen University (1924), in Guangzhou. Prestigious science and technical universities include the Beijing Institute of Technology (1940), Tongji University (1907) in Shanghai, and the University of Science and Technology of China (1958) in Hefei.

In the past, students received free university education but upon graduation were required to accept jobs in state-owned industries. The government instituted a pilot program in 1994 whereby the state allowed university students the option of paying their own tuition in exchange for the freedom to find their own jobs after graduation. This enabled graduates who paid their way to choose better paying jobs with foreign companies in China, or to demand better pay from state-owned enterprises. By the late 1990s, all incoming university students were required to pay their own tuition, although government loans were available.

Certain fields of study have grown in popularity in Chinese higher education. While engineering and science remain very popular, other fields, including medicine, economics, literature, and law, have grown considerably in recent years. Another trend has been the rapid increase in the number of advanced students who study abroad, mainly in North America, Europe, and Japan.

In 1998–1999 China had 145 million pupils enrolled in primary schools, and 91 million students enrolled in secondary schools. By contrast, enrollments in 1949 had been about 24 million in primary schools and 1.25 million in secondary schools. There were 12.1 million students enrolled in institutions of higher learning in 2001–2002.

G.

Social Structure

China’s traditional class and social structure traces back more than 3,000 years to the Shang (1570?-1045? bc) and Zhou (1045?-256 bc) dynasties. During this period a ruling class emerged from a combination of priests, military leaders, and administrators. By the 4th and 3rd centuries bc, the legitimacy of the ruling elite was embedded in the writings of Confucius and other scholars.

Confucian doctrine sought to develop a framework for a stable and harmonious society. In this framework, mutual responsibilities and obligations were defined between ruler and subjects, husband and wife, parents and children, father and eldest son, and eldest son and other siblings. If the roles were carried out properly, society would function in a well-ordered manner. China was defined as a male-centered society in which the family name passed down through the male line. The eldest son was charged with performing important annual rituals that involved reverence for deceased ancestors and parents. Veneration for ancestors was an important part of Chinese family life, and every Chinese home had, and typically still has, a small shrine for ancestors.

Beyond family life, Chinese social order traditionally was defined in terms of a few main social groupings. The emperor and his attendants were at the top of the social order. Below him was the imperial bureaucracy, staffed at all levels—court, province, prefecture, and county—with elite scholar officials. Through these officials, backed by the army and other imperial policing authorities, the imperial government administered the state and imposed its authority and control when challenged. Farmers, soldiers, merchants, and artisans were below the bureaucrats. This general social order persisted until the imperial system was overthrown in 1911, although over time the position of merchants had improved. By the 20th century, a number of families with commercial and industrial interests had amassed great fortunes. Their wealth permitted them the luxury of educating their children, and through this means, their families’ status advanced in the traditional hierarchy.

When the Chinese Communists gained power in 1949, the social hierarchy changed dramatically. Poor peasant farmers and people who had joined the Communist army during the revolution were held in esteem within the party, which exercised great influence over society. Landlords and educated elites often were punished, and many lost their land and other properties. In rural areas there were many executions and other punishments for landlord families.

A peasant background continues to be important for advancement within the party hierarchy. However, the value of education as a means of developing skills and strong qualifications has emerged once again as the best path to social advancement. Since the 1970s individuals from elite backgrounds have been allowed to compete for educational advancement as China has sought to use more fully its human resources. In some cases, former factory owners have been allowed to reestablish their businesses, and in this manner China has allowed a small measure of rehabilitation of its elite governing classes from the past. But China remains a Communist state and political system, and as long as it continues as such, elites are likely to be viewed with suspicion by other members of society.

H.

Way of Life

Communism has brought about far-reaching changes in China, as the way of life of China’s people has incorporated and adjusted to shifting ideological currents. Traditionally, the average Chinese citizen, especially the more than 90 percent of the population who resided in rural areas, had little or nothing to do with the central or local government. Most people’s lives were centered on their home village or town, and the family was the main unit of social activity and economic production. The Communist revolution injected the Communist Party into every level of urban and rural life and every institution of society. Thus for the average Chinese citizen, whether urban or rural dweller, Communism has brought a far more intrusive role of government in daily life and in the operation of all significant facets of the economy and society.

However, in the years following the death of Chairman Mao in 1976, China’s leaders gradually modified the strict policies of socialist guidance of the economy, and the role of the party in everyday life began to diminish. This shift reflected an increasing understanding among party leaders that the socialist approach was not succeeding. They recognized that it had not provided a better life for the Chinese people and was stifling economic growth. The shift has been particularly evident in the countryside. Reforms in the rural economy have led to a virtual privatization of rural land, with peasants acquiring long-term leases that amount virtually to private ownership. Many peasants are now responsible for earning their own livelihoods and supporting their families. The state’s role in their daily lives has clearly diminished, although it has not disappeared.

Despite the far-reaching changes in rural areas, country life remains attuned to the seasons and focused on nearby towns and cities for commerce and entertainment. In the rural areas surrounding large urban areas, the pace of life has intensified as farmers have geared their agricultural production to the growing demands of urban consumers. Moreover, much of China’s urban industrial development has flowed to the adjacent rural areas. In these areas land is readily available at lower prices, and the rules concerning release of noxious fumes, liquids, and solids are looser and often not enforced. The inhabitants of these rural areas peripheral to cities have greater opportunities for employment off the farms, often in industrial or service jobs that are not even related to the farm economy. Residents of these areas have been increasingly drawn into a quasi-urban lifestyle, with all of its attendant pleasures and challenges.

Traditional rural family life has been changed by the dynamism of the nearby cities and their evolving economies. New employment opportunities often attract the male head of household, who may later be followed by other members of the farm family. Such employment offers new opportunities but also new challenges. Uncertainty about the long-term prospects for employment off the farm often makes farmers reluctant to let go of their land and farms. When peasants leave the farm under such circumstances, they often leave the farming to those at home who have little interest and enthusiasm for the work, which may be viewed as difficult and tiresome. Under these conditions, the quality of the farm may decline, and the productivity of both land and people may begin to diminish. Nevertheless, the off-farm jobs enhance prospects for social as well as economic change. The new jobs bring rural Chinese into contact with urban dwellers who have different values and different ways of doing things.

Farther from the cities, in the more remote areas of the interior, the traditional rural way of life is generally more prominent. In these areas, opportunities for new off-farm jobs are limited. Yet even in these locations, many peasants have grown dissatisfied with local conditions. They have migrated to other provinces and distant cities in search of more profitable employment and relief from poverty and the routines of village life. Such migrations are not easy, however. The peasants are allowed to leave their villages only as temporary migrants to provide needed labor services in those urban jobs that are the most undesirable, difficult, and dirty. These include jobs in construction, transportation, and domestic service. Migrants must provide for their own lodging, food, and other needs. They are not entitled to the many privileges and subsidies afforded urban citizens employed in the state-supported sector of the economy—such as health care and good schooling for their children. Yet these transients continue to leave rural areas for the cities with dreams of either becoming permanent city dwellers or earning their fortunes and returning to their native villages with new wealth and power. Some have indeed done well. However, the reality for most of these transients is a difficult life of hard work and a second-class status, in cities far from their native villages.

In the cities, the power of the CCP and its governing apparatuses of state power are more obvious and controlling. Most people in cities are employed in state-operated commercial and industrial enterprises. Workers in these enterprises must adhere to state-mandated social rules, as well as employment rules, as the state controls virtually all aspects of life. Access to housing, health care, and education depend on following state-mandated guidelines of proper social conduct, such as the one-child per family policy. In the 1990s the state initiated an effort to privatize urban housing. By the close of the 20th century, many state-supported employees were able to purchase apartments through various state-supported credit arrangements.

At the same time, city life offers many opportunities that are not available in the countryside. City dwellers enjoy the benefits associated with higher incomes and enhanced cultural, commercial, and educational opportunities. China’s large cities in the eastern coastal provinces offer many of the amenities and opportunities associated with cities in the West. Among these are department stores containing the latest fashions, and lodging and restaurant facilities in hotels of world-class standards. In addition to outstanding local and non-local Chinese cuisine, European, Japanese, Indian, and American fare is available. American fast food, such as McDonald’s and Kentucky Fried Chicken, is widely available.

In and around China’s great cities are found the evolving lifestyles of the newly rich, those with strong connections in government and commerce who can accumulate substantial wealth. Members of this class are often eager to flaunt their new wealth. They buy fine clothing and accessories and fancy automobiles, and even purchase large, single-family dwellings near new private schools. Fancy restaurants, discos, and nightclubs are trendy venues for the newly rich to show off their wealth and status and enjoy a sophisticated lifestyle. The children of these urbanites are the ones most likely to go abroad for foreign study and learn foreign languages. Such education will permit them rapid entry into the business and professional circles of China’s increasingly globalized economy and society. While this newly wealthy population is comparatively small, it signifies the rapidly growing disparity in income levels between rich and poor in China’s cities.

I.

Social Issues

The increasing disparity in income levels resulting from the growth in China’s economy has become a significant social problem. Such disparities in income and wealth are found in both cities and rural areas. But the largest disparities, and the most significant friction between rich and poor, are seen in cities. The differences between those who have good housing provided by the state and those who live in makeshift dwellings or otherwise substandard housing are becoming increasingly visible. Many temporary workers do not have proper access to health care. Furthermore, they often have no access to schools, and if they bring their families to the cities, their children sometimes turn to petty crime. This activity causes friction with permanent local residents, who often complain that the temporary migrants cause all of the city’s problems. In each of China’s largest cities, such as Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou, the number of transient workers may exceed 1 million. This issue is becoming increasingly awkward for China, whose Communist government purports to be committed to socialist ideals of equality and sees itself as a model of modern socialist development.

A related and serious problem is the large extent of government corruption in China, which aggravates the disparities in income. Government approvals are required for everything from changes in residence to permits for building factories to exporting commodities. Therefore, government officials responsible for granting those approvals wield a great deal of power. Many bureaucrats abuse their power and expect money in return for routine approval of permits. Sometimes, payments to corrupt officials can involve very large sums of money. Government efforts to curb these practices have been generally ineffective.

J.

Social Services

The Chinese government seeks to provide for the physical well being of its citizens. Major public welfare programs have included subsidized housing, vocational opportunities, health care, retirement benefits, and the assurance of a paid funeral. Yet services and benefits provided in cities have always been sharply different from those available in the countryside. City dwellers who work for the state have received housing, medical care, and good schooling for their children. The government has also provided benefits for disability, maternity, injury, and old age. Such benefits are part of why many state enterprises are in troubled financial condition and unable to show a profit. In contrast, rural dwellers have been largely on their own for social services. Their well-being has depended on the productivity and wealth of the area in which they live. Since the reforms began in 1978, the level of medical assistance and other social services in rural areas has even been reduced. At the same time, however, rural incomes have risen dramatically, thus better enabling peasants to take care of their own social needs. Farmers do not receive any pension benefits. Under Chinese custom, sons are expected to look after their parents in their declining years.

Health care in China has improved dramatically since the economic reforms began. In 1949 the average life expectancy in China was 45 years. By 2007 the average had risen to 73 years (71 years for men and 75 years for women). During the same period the number of medical doctors increased greatly. Despite an overall rapid population increase, in 2004 China had 1 physician for every 609 inhabitants, as opposed to 1 for every 27,000 in 1949. Clinics typically are found at the village and district levels, and hospitals, in most cases, at the city and county levels.

In the period from 1949 to 1974, a paramedical corps of so-called barefoot doctors played an important role in bringing health services to rural people. These personnel were trained in hygiene, preventive medicine, and routine treatment of common diseases. They serviced rural areas where both Chinese and Western-style doctors were scarce. For millions of peasants, barefoot doctors were their first encounter with anyone trained in health services. In recent years, rural incomes have increased and the rural economy has been virtually privatized. These developments have enabled peasants to use local clinics for less serious illnesses and to use hospitals in neighboring towns and cities for more serious illnesses. Typically, a fee is involved, although the costs for such medical assistance is modest compared to such costs in the United States. Another development in health services has been the renewed interest in traditional Chinese medicine, such as local herbal medication, folk medicine, and acupuncture. In rural areas, herbal medications may represent as much as four-fifths of the medication used.

China has launched mass campaigns in the health-care field. Efforts to promote child immunization, eradicate schistosomiasis, and diminish sexually transmitted infections have received widespread governmental promotion. Highly successful campaigns have been waged against infectious and parasite-borne diseases that were formerly widespread, such as tuberculosis, malaria, and filariasis (diseases caused by the filaria parasite). By the start of the 21st century, however, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) had become an increasing concern in China. In 2005 an estimated 650,000 Chinese people were infected with AIDS.

Clifton W. Pannell wrote the Population section of this article.

IV.

Arts and Culture

China’s artistic and cultural achievements over the past 3,000 years are a source of great pride for the Chinese people. Central to the country’s cultural identity is its written language, which has been the vehicle for many of those achievements. The earliest known printed text is a Buddhist religious book, the Jingangjing (Diamond Sutra), which dates from ad 868. The spread of printing had a great effect on the development of Chinese culture, as it enabled the distribution of new ideas. It also enabled government control of ideas, and beginning during the Song dynasty (960-1279) imperial governments took close interest in approving and printing books. The rulers of China’s dynasties emphasized their role as protectors of the country’s cultural tradition, supporting visual artists and writers and creating elaborate palace and temple complexes to demonstrate their fitness to rule. China’s heritage was also available to those residents who were not literate in the Chinese language, often through the medium of drama, which brought stories from Chinese history and literature into even remote towns and villages.

In the 20th century China underwent a number of revolutionary political changes that led many Chinese to challenge the value of their country’s cultural heritage. Communist leader Mao Zedong, who was a principal founder of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, laid down for all the arts the duty of subordinating self-expression to the needs of class struggle and the building of socialism. This reached an extreme in the political campaign known as the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). Since the mid-1970s and the introduction into China of a market economy, the arts have operated in a context of much greater freedom, which has benefited some forms of art more than others. China’s distinctive cultural heritage is now threatened as much by forces of global competition as it is by government interference.

A.

Literature

China is the home of the world’s longest continuous tradition of writing, dating from the first use of Chinese characters for purposes of ritual divination during the Shang dynasty (1570?-1045? bc). The earliest Chinese literary works date from the Western Zhou dynasty (1045?-771 bc). These include the anonymous Shu jing (Book of History or Book of Documents), a collection of ancient state documents, and the Shi jing (Book of Poetry or Book of Songs), an anthology of 305 poems that, according to legend, was compiled and edited by Chinese philosopher Confucius. These books are part of the group of texts known collectively as the Five Classics, or Confucian Classics, which have been revered as guides to moral action and the correct ordering of human society.

From very early times the ability to write poetry was seen as one of the marks of an educated man. Chinese poetry, often personal and lyrical in tone, reached a high point during the Tang dynasty (ad 618-907). Major poets of the period include Wang Wei, Li Bo (Li Po), and Du Fu (Tu Fu). The typical poem of the Tang period was written in the shi form, characterized by five- or seven-word lines, with the rhyme usually falling on the even lines. New forms of verse based on the structures of well-known songs were popular during the Song dynasty.

Drama first flourished during the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), when plays were often enjoyed as written literature as well as performed on the stage. During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the short story and the novel developed. Major works from this period include Sanguozhi yanyi (The Romance of the Three Kingdoms), a historical novel about wars and warriors; Shui hu zhuan (All Men Are Brothers, also known as Outlaws of the Marsh or Water Margin), a novel of the adventures of bandit-heroes; Xiyouji (The Journey to the West), a Buddhist fable; and Jin ping mei (The Golden Lotus or The Plum In the Golden Vase), a work dealing with daily life in a rich family. The playwright Tang Xianzu and others wrote lengthy dramas, often with romantic themes. Also during the Ming period, and for the first time in Chinese history, a great deal of poetry was written by women. Many novels continued to be written during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), the most famous being Hong lou meng (1792, Dream of the Red Chamber, 1929) by Cao Zhan (also known as Cao Xueqin).

In the 20th century, dissatisfaction with the literature of the past was expressed in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, when writers explored new literary forms that reflected more closely the spoken forms of the Chinese language. Short-story writer and essayist Lu Xun was a leading figure of this movement. After the founding of the Communist People’s Republic of China in 1949, the government ordered that all literature serve the needs of the socialist state. Only after the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 were Chinese writers allowed more freedom to address topics of personal interest to them and their readers. See also Chinese Literature.

B.

Art and Architecture

Artistic production in China goes back to about 6000 bc. The Chinese consider their unbroken tradition of art one of the central achievements of Chinese culture, and art of various kinds has always been held in high regard. In earliest times, the most important art forms were jade carving and the casting of bronze vessels, often made for burial in royal tombs. For the last 2,000 years, the art form that has enjoyed the greatest prestige has been calligraphy, in which the characters of the Chinese language are written with a brush on silk or paper. The calligrapher Wang Xizhi, who lived during the 4th century, is remembered as one of the greatest early practitioners of this art, although virtually no traces of his work survive.

The second most important art form in China after calligraphy is painting. Most of the earliest surviving Chinese paintings date from the Song dynasty, which is seen as one of the golden eras of the tradition. A number of famous artists and art theorists, such as Su Dongpo (pseudonym of Su Shi), lived during this period, and the important art form of landscape painting developed. Many famous painters are recorded in the extensive literature about art from the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. One distinctive feature of this literature is the emphasis it places on amateur artists. Their work often was seen as more valuable than that produced by professionals, who were viewed by the educated elite as artisans with a lower social status. Today the tradition of watercolor painting on silk or paper is practiced widely throughout China.

Sculpture was an important art form in China, especially after the introduction of Buddhism from India in the 1st century. However, most sculpture was produced for religious purposes by anonymous craftsmen, and thus the educated elite did not regard it as highly as they did calligraphy and painting. Chinese artisans have also made major achievements in forms such as jade carving, lacquerwork, textiles, and ceramics. Many art forms, such as silk weaving and porcelain work, were invented in China and only later spread to other parts of the world. China’s villages developed important folk art traditions, which were often very different from the art produced for the wealthy in the cities.

Although many splendid palaces, temples, and other buildings have been created in China over the centuries, architecture traditionally was not seen as an art form, and it was given little attention by the elite.

China’s imperial rulers were major patrons of the arts. Religious organizations and individual wealthy patrons also employed artists. After 1949, many artists became employees of the state, paid to produce work glorifying the People’s Republic and the Chinese Communist Party. Since 1976 artists have gained greater artistic freedom, but there has been a reduction in government financial support, and the art market has assumed greater importance. See also Chinese Art and Architecture.

C.

Music and Dance

The philosopher Confucius saw music and dance as enormously important to keeping society in good order, and both have always had an important role in Confucian practices. The earliest surviving Chinese musical instruments include bronze bells dating from the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties. Complete sets of these bells, as well as some stringed instruments, survive from the Eastern Zhou dynasty, which followed the Western Zhou. In imperial China, the ability to play and appreciate music was a central aspect of high social status. Educated gentlemen were expected to be particularly familiar with the musical repertoire for the qin (ch’in), a long zither plucked with the fingers.

Alongside the music of the educated elite, a rich tradition of folk music developed in China’s towns and villages. This tradition continues to thrive today. Most of this music is instrumental and employs a wide variety of stringed and blown instruments, as well as complex percussion sections of gongs, drums, and cymbals. Chinese folk music varies considerably from region to region. Many urban centers now have both Chinese and Western style musical groups, including symphony orchestras and rock bands. See also Chinese Music.

Until the end of the Tang dynasty, dance was an important form of entertainment for the elite, especially at the imperial court. Men performed vigorous dances with swords, and it was fashionable to watch dances performed by professional dancers imported from other parts of Asia. In the Song period the practice of mutilating women’s feet (known as foot binding) gradually became widespread, and this reduced the role of dance among the upper classes.

Forms of folk dance continued to be practiced in China’s countryside, and in the 20th century China’s Communist government promoted them as part of a new emphasis on popular art forms. Also during the 20th century, originally Western forms of dance, such as ballroom dance and ballet, were introduced to China. Ballroom dance was banned for much of the period after 1949, while ballet was used in the 1960s to create “model” revolutionary ballets, such as The White-Haired Girl and The Red Detachment of Women. Since 1976 forms of social dance, such as ballroom and disco, have become popular pastimes at all levels of Chinese society.

D.

Theater and Film

Chinese theater varies significantly in different regions of the country, with more than 300 types known. All of these involve a combination of music, singing, speech, and dramatic action. Drama traditionally was performed in urban theaters and teahouses by professional actors for paying customers. However, it was also performed to entertain the gods as part of religious rituals, and in this way it was brought to wide audiences in the countryside. These types of rituals have revived in recent years with the relaxation of prohibitions against them by the Chinese government.

Although there have been forms of dramatic entertainment in China since very early times, Chinese theater reached its first height during the Yuan dynasty, when the form of literary drama known as Yuan zaju (Yuan drama) came to the fore. Zaju plays consisted of four acts and a self-contained scene that usually appeared between acts. Men and women both depicted characters of either sex, and only the lead character sang. Dramas such as The West Chamber, a romantic love story by Wang Shifu, were created during this period and have remained part of the repertoire of the Chinese theater ever since.

The late 18th century brought the rise of jingxi, or “drama of the capital city,” under the patronage of the imperial court. This is the form of theater that is widely known in the West as Peking Opera. It combines various theatrical forms—including speech, music, acrobatics, dance, mime, and martial arts—to tell stories from Chinese history and folklore. Until the mid-20th century, men performed all roles in Peking Opera, using elaborate and stylized costumes and makeup to show the type of character being portrayed. The most famous Peking Opera actor of the 20th century, Mei Lanfang, was particularly successful at playing female roles.

In the 20th century Chinese writers adopted originally Western forms of theater to create the form known as huaju (spoken drama). This form remained restricted to major cities and urban audiences. After 1949 the traditional repertoire of historical and romantic dramas was gradually abandoned in favor of revolutionary operas. Since 1976 government controls have been relaxed and the traditional repertoire reinstated, although it has been losing popularity among younger audiences. See also Asian Theater.

The cinema, imported from the West, has been very successful in China. A vigorous film industry developed in Shanghai in the early 20th century, and after the People’s Republic came to power, film was used as a major form of government propaganda. In recent decades Chinese films have found success with international audiences. Popular works include those by director Zhang Yimou, such as Hong gaoliang (1987, also released as Red Sorghum), Ju Dou (1989), Dahong denglong gaogao gua (1991, also released as Raise the Red Lantern), and Ying xiong (2002, also released as Hero).

E.

Cultural Institutions

China’s major cultural institutions are in its largest cities. Every provincial capital has a museum and a library, as well as sites of historical or cultural importance.

Beijing is home to China’s largest museum, the Palace Museum. Housed in the Forbidden City, the former residence of the imperial family and court, the museum contains part of the vast imperial collection of artworks. It also mounts exhibitions of important archaeological discoveries from elsewhere in China. Also in Beijing are the Chairman Mao Memorial Hall, the Museum of Chinese History, the China Art Gallery, and the Beijing Museum of Natural History. Beijing’s Military Museum of the Chinese People’s Revolution contains collections relating to modern Chinese history, and the Capital Museum houses historical relics including stoneware, bronzes, and calligraphy.

Shanghai also plays a leading cultural role in China. The city is home to the Shanghai Museum, which contains one of China’s most important historic art collections; the Museum of Natural Sciences; and the museum of the Tomb of Lu Xun (Lu Xun was a 20th-century writer). Numerous buildings in Shanghai are preserved as historic sites. Among them is the site of the First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party.

China’s many provincial museums contain important archaeological materials discovered since the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949. The Nanjing Museum in Jiangsu Province and the Shaanxi Provincial Museum in Xi’an are particularly renowned for their collections of archaeological treasures. Most major archaeological sites have museums attached to them. One of the most important sites is the tomb of Chinese emperor Qin Shihuangdi, located just outside Xi’an in Shaanxi Province. Excavations of the tomb have yielded a terra-cotta army of more than 6,000 life-size figures, buried with the emperor upon his death in 210 bc.

Archaeological sites and important historic buildings are protected by government regulations, although illegal excavation of China’s cultural heritage has remained a problem. China’s museums and other cultural institutions are very important to the country’s developing tourism industry. Economic reforms in China since the 1970s have made it more necessary for these institutions to raise funds to support their own activities. Many have done so by organizing exhibitions of their treasures outside of China; these exhibitions have brought China’s artistic and cultural heritage to an international audience.

Important libraries in China include the National Library of China, in Beijing, containing China’s largest collection of ancient and modern books; and the Shanghai Library. The First Historical Archives of China, in Beijing, houses historical records from China’s imperial dynasties.

Craig Clunas contributed the Arts and Culture section of this article.

V.

Economy

In the 1950s China’s Communist government began bringing a majority of economic activity under state control and determining production, pricing, and distribution of goods and services. This system is known as a planned economy, also called a command economy (see Communism: Centrally Planned Economy). In 1979 China began implementing economic reforms to expand and modernize its economy. The reforms have gradually lessened the government’s control of the economy, allowing some aspects of a market economy and encouraging foreign investment; however, the state-owned sector remains the backbone of China’s economy. China refers to this new system as a socialist market economy. As a result of the reforms, China’s economy grew at an average annual rate of 10.2 percent in the 1980s and by 10.2 percent annually in the period of 2005. This was among the highest growth rates in the world. However, the reforms also have caused problems for China’s economic planners. Income gaps have widened, unemployment has increased, and inflation has resulted from the extremely rapid and unbalanced development.

In 2005 China’s gross domestic product (GDP) was $2,234.3 billion. The size of the country’s economy makes China a significant economic power; despite this, it remains a low-income, developing country because it must support a huge population of 1.32 billion. In 2005 China’s per capita GDP was just $1,712.80. Industrial activity (manufacturing, mining, and construction) contributes the largest percentage of the country’s GDP, amounting to 48 percent in 2005. Transportation, commerce, and services together accounted for 40 percent. And agriculture, together with forestry and fishing, contributed 13 percent.

A.

History of China’s Economy

China developed an agricultural economy more than 2,000 years ago. During the Han dynasty (206 bc-ad 220) the Chinese developed several tools and practices that farmers in Europe and the Middle East adopted only centuries, or even a millennium, later. The cast-iron moldboard plow, for example, made it easier to cultivate hard or stony land. Although heavier than wooden plows, these plows created much less friction and could be pulled by a single animal, even in the waterlogged clay soils of southern China.

After the Han period, however, China’s agriculture and economy advanced more slowly. For centuries, China’s economy was based on farming that used ancient methods, and much of the agricultural activity was performed at a subsistence level. By the 19th century China had an underdeveloped agricultural economy that was backward compared to the developing industrial economies of Europe and North America.

In the mid-19th century Britain defeated China in the Opium Wars and forced China to create coastal treaty ports, in which foreign residents could live and trade. A period of Western penetration followed, during which railroads and highways were constructed, some industrial development was begun, and new energy sources, such as kerosene and electricity, were introduced. However, such activity had little impact on China’s economy overall. In 1911 Chinese revolutionaries overthrew China’s last dynasty, the Qing, and the new Chinese republican government attempted to modernize the economy. But in the decades that followed, civil wars and a war against Japanese occupation stifled economic growth and development.

In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) came to power and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC). During the first few years of its existence, the PRC focused on rebuilding from the ravages of war and redistributing land to 300 million poor peasants. Then, in 1953, China implemented a planned economy, and the government took over all means of production. The state outlined how the economy was to be developed in a series of five-year plans, which detailed how investment funding, production materials, and other resources were to be allocated. Success was measured by the fulfillment, or over-fulfillment, of the production targets and timetables established in the five-year plans. As a result, quality and innovation became less important than they had been in the past. The government assigned people to jobs and there was little possibility of job transfer. The state also controlled wages and prices and owned all transportation and housing. Household and personal consumption was controlled by the government through a system that rationed food, cotton cloth, and other daily necessities. Consequently, enterprises, families, and individuals had very limited choice in their economic behavior.

A.1.

Five-Year Plans

The first five-year plan, implemented from 1953 to 1958, outlined changes for all economic sectors but particularly emphasized expansion of heavy industry. The government created hundreds of large, state-owned, industrial enterprises, and by 1958 China had a solid industrial base. In the agricultural sector, meanwhile, the state organized workers into large, cooperative farms. Agricultural output increased, but not nearly at the same rate as industry.

Initially, the authors of the second five-year plan modeled it on the first. By the beginning of 1958, however, they had revised the plan to address the concern of Chinese leader Mao Zedong that agriculture was not growing as fast as industry. The revised plan was to be accomplished through an economic and social campaign intended to radically increase China’s agricultural production while maintaining high industrial growth. The campaign became known as the Great Leap Forward.

At this time, China was becoming increasingly isolationist in its foreign policy, and one goal of the Great Leap Forward was to make the country self-sufficient. A key component of the program was the establishment of small furnaces for making steel from low-grade ore, scrap metal, and even household implements. Millions of peasants and city workers were ordered to abandon their fields and factories in order to run primitive backyard furnaces. Although the program pushed China’s total iron and steel production past Britain’s in just a few years, the result over time was massive economic dislocation as well as wasted resources, including widespread deforestation for the sake of obtaining fuel to fire furnaces.

In agriculture, the government established huge rural people’s communes, which brought all rural land and major farm equipment under collective ownership. Although China sowed a huge grain crop in 1958, much of it went to waste because of inadequate transportation and storage facilities. Worse, a policy of deep plowing and the practice of planting grain even in conditions unsuited to its cultivation did a great deal of ecological damage. Silting and runoff from ill-considered and poorly executed irrigation projects, and the destruction of trees, grasses, and ponds, contributed to catastrophic floods in 1959 and 1960. The misguided industrial and agricultural policies of the Great Leap Forward, compounded by these environmental calamities, resulted in three years of famine in which more than 20 million people died.

As a result of the famine and the economic failures of the Great Leap Forward, China launched a period of economic readjustment. By 1965 production in many fields again approached the level of the late 1950s. The third and fourth five-year plans were begun in 1966 and 1971. However, both agricultural and industrial production were severely curtailed by the effects of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), a political campaign that was intended to revolutionize Chinese society but that ultimately caused social chaos and near economic collapse.

In the fifth five-year plan, begun in 1976, China's leaders decided to move at a faster pace on all economic fronts to make up for the losses suffered in the preceding ten years. However, the biggest economic changes occurred after the CCP, under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, adopted the national objective of modernizing agriculture, industry, defense, and science and technology in 1978. Subsequent five-year plans focused on achieving this objective.

A.2.

Reform and Opening

The first reforms toward achieving the new national objective began in poor rural areas in 1979, when the government replaced communal farming and distribution with the household contracting and responsibility system. Under this system, individual farm households worked separate plots of land owned by an economic collective. The households could sell produce at farmers’ markets for whatever price buyers were willing to pay in return for selling a certain amount of produce to the collective at a predetermined price. The contract and responsibility system was successful because it gave farmers an incentive to reduce production costs and increase productivity.

In 1984 the government shifted the emphasis of the economic reforms to urban areas. It extended greater decision-making power to managers of state-owned enterprises, and replaced the system of collecting all profits with one of collecting taxes on profits and then allowing enterprises to make their own reinvestment choices. Furthermore, whi