II.

Land and Resources

Chile is bounded on the north by Peru, on the east by Bolivia and Argentina, and on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. The dominant physical feature of Chile is the Andes Mountains, which extend the entire length of the country, from the Bolivian plateau in the north to the islands of Tierra del Fuego in the south. Chains of islands extend along the southern coast. Chile has a total area of 756,626 sq km (292,135 sq mi).

Chile owns a number of islands, including Easter Island, the Juan Fernández Islands, and Sala y Gómez in the South Pacific. One of the Juan Fernández Islands is named for Alexander Selkirk, who presumably inspired the fictional shipwrecked character Robinson Crusoe in the novel by Daniel Defoe. Cape Horn in the Tierra del Fuego Archipelago marks the southernmost point of the South American continent. Chile shares Tierra del Fuego with Argentina. The Chonos Archipelago hugs Chile’s southern coast.

A.

Land Regions

Chile can be divided along its length into three topographic zones: the lofty Andes on the east; the low coastal mountains on the west; and the plateau area, which includes the Central Valley, between these ranges. The country has three major geographical and climatic regions: the dry northern region; the central region, with a Mediterranean (mild to warm) climate; and the southern regions, with a temperate sea climate.

The Andes are widest in the northern region, where broad plateaus occur and where many mountains rise more than 6,100 m (20,000 ft) above sea level. The country’s highest peak, Ojos del Salado (6,880 m/22,572 ft), is found on the border with Argentina. Between the Andes and the Pacific the Atacama Desert occupies a plateau. This vast desert contains large nitrate fields and rich mineral deposits.

In the central region the plateau gives way to a valley, known as the Central Valley. The Central Valley is 1,000 km (about 600 mi) long and ranges from 40 to 80 km (25 to 50 mi) in width. The central region is the most heavily populated area of the country, with nearly 90 percent of Chile’s people. It also forms the agricultural heartland of Chile. The central Andes are narrower in width and have lower elevations than the mountains in the north. The most important passes in the Andes are located in the central region.

The southern region is without an interior valley; the valley disappears below the sea at Puerto Montt. The long chains of islands along the Pacific coast are formed by the peaks of submerged coastal mountains. Numerous fjords—narrow, steep-sided inlets—indent the coastline here. Glaciers discharge icebergs into the coastal fjords. The southern Andes have elevations that seldom exceed 1,800 m (6,000 ft), but many summits have snowcaps. The region has some of the world’s most beautiful mountain peaks, glacial valleys, lakes, and tumbling waterfalls. Chile lies in a zone of geologic activity and is subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

B.

Rivers and Lakes

The many rivers of Chile are relatively short. Most of them rise in the Andes and flow west to the Pacific. In the northern and central regions the rivers are fed primarily by the perpetual snow cover of the Andes. The most important rivers (from north to south) are the Loa, Elqui, Aconcagua, Maipo, Maule, Biobío, and Imperial. Although the rivers have limited value for navigation because of cascades, they are vital for the irrigation and hydroelectric power they furnish. Many of Chile’s major lakes, including Lake Llanquihue, are concentrated in the scenic lake district of the southern region.

C.

Climate

Because of its great latitudinal range, Chile has a diversity of climates. In general, temperatures are moderated by oceanic influences. Winters are mild, and summers are relatively cool. Precipitation is generally concentrated in the winter months (May to August), and rainfall increases southward.

The northern region is almost entirely desert and is one of the driest areas in the world. Temperatures, however, are moderated by the offshore presence of the cold Peru, or Humboldt, Current. The average temperatures at Antofagasta range from 18° to 23°C (64° to 74°F) in January and from 12° to 16°C (53° to 62°F) in July. This area gets very little precipitation with an annual average of 2 mm (0.1 in) at Antofagasta.

The central region of Chile has a mild climate. In Santiago the average temperature range is 12° to 29°C (54° to 85°F) in January and 3° to 15°C (38° to 58°F) in July. Temperatures decrease about 1 Celsius degree for each 150 m (about 1 Fahrenheit degree for each 275 ft) of elevation in the Andes. Santiago receives an annual total of 360 mm (14 in) of precipitation.

The southern region is cooler and experiences year-round rainfall. Precipitation reaches a maximum of about 5,000 mm (about 200 in) near the Strait of Magellan, much of it in the form of snow. The average annual temperature at Punta Arenas in the far south is about 7°C (about 44°F). Strong winds and cyclonic storms (see Cyclone) are common in the southern region.

D.

Plant and Animal Life

The indigenous plant life of Chile varies according to climatic zone. Plant life in the northern region includes brambles and cactus and has little variety. Here, the Atacama provides one of the best examples on Earth of an absolute desert. The more humid Central Valley supports several species of cacti, espino (a thorny shrub), grasses, and the Chilean pine, which bears edible nuts. Dense rain forests are located south of Valdivia with laurel, magnolia, false beech, and various species of conifers. In the extreme south, a steppe vegetation of grasses is found.

Animal life is less diversified than in other parts of South America because of the barrier to animal migration presented by the Andes. Indigenous mammals include llama, alpaca, vicuña, guanaco, puma, Andean wolf, huemul (a large deer, also spelled guemal), pudu (a small deer), and chinchilla. Birdlife is varied, but most of the larger South American types are absent. Aside from trout, which were introduced from North America, few freshwater fish inhabit Chilean streams and lakes. The coastal waters abound in fish and marine animals.

E.

Mineral Resources

Chile is rich in mineral resources, chiefly because of the size of the deposits rather than because of the diversity of minerals. Copper is by far the most important mineral. Others include nitrates, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, manganese, petroleum and natural gas, silver, and gold.

F.

Environmental Issues

Nearly two-thirds of Chile’s population lives in the fertile region surrounding Santiago. This high concentration of people has led to severe environmental deterioration in this area. Many water systems are polluted with sewage, and urban air pollution is severe. An increase in automobile ownership in recent years prompted the government to establish a complex management plan with strict emission standards and a modernized public transport system.

Chile’s forests, especially temperate rain forests, are being harvested at a high rate, mostly in the south by foreign companies. The native trees are being replaced with extensive tree farms, so the total forest cover is actually increasing, although at the expense of natural biodiversity. Soil erosion is widespread, and desertification in some areas is significant.

Chile has an extensive protected area system made up of 30 national parks, 36 national reserves, and 10 natural monuments, but it excludes many important ecotypes, especially those of the central and northern regions. Overall, nearly 20 percent of the country was protected by the late 1990s. Through its ratification of an agreement called the Western Hemisphere Convention, Chile pledged to protect its wildlife. The country also ratified the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol and the Antarctic Treaty, as well as treaties on biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, nuclear testing, plant protection, and ship pollution. Regionally, Chile has joined with its neighbors in signing the Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicuña.