II.

Land and Resources

Greece’s total area is 131,957 sq km (50,949 sq mi). Islands account for about 20 percent of that figure. From north to south, the greatest distance between points on Greek territory is 793 km (493 mi); from east to west it is 992 km (616 mi).

A.

Natural Regions

Mainland Greece includes the regions of Thrace and Macedonia in the north; Epirus, Thessaly (Thessalia), and Central Greece in the central section; and the Pelopónnisos, a peninsula connected to the rest of the mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth, in the south. Of Greece’s more than 2,000 islands, only about 170 are inhabited. Major islands include Crete (Kríti), Euboea (Évvoia), Ikaría (Icaria), Khíos (Chios), Límnos (Lemnos), Lésvos (Lesbos), Sámos, Samothráki (Samothrace), and Thásos. Greece also has four island groups: the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades (Kikladhes), the Dodecanese, and the Ionian Islands. Like much of the mainland of which they are geological extensions, the islands are generally mountainous and dry. The islands of the Aegean Sea are hilly, rugged, stony, and dry.

About 80 percent of Greece’s land area is mountainous. The Pindus Mountains, with an average elevation of about 2,650 m (about 8,700 ft), extend from north to south through the middle of the mainland. A northeastern spur of the Pindus range includes Greece’s highest point, Mount Olympus (2,917 m/9,570 ft), considered in ancient times to be the home of the gods. Lower mountain ranges, including the Taíyetos Mountains on the Pelopónnisos, generally run from northeast to southwest through the country, including on the islands. Much of Greece lies in an earthquake zone, and earthquakes occur frequently. In 1978 an earthquake inflicted considerable damage on the city of Thessaloníki (Salonika).

B.

Rivers

Greece’s rivers are relatively short, and many dry up in the summer. None of the rivers are navigable. The country’s major rivers include the Vardar (Axiós), the Struma (Strymon), the Néstos, and the Aliákmon, all of which flow through the region of Macedonia to the Aegean. Measuring 297 km (185 mi), the Aliákmon is the longest river in Greece.

C.

Coastline

Although Greece is relatively small, its coastline totals 13,700 km (8,500 mi), making it one of the longest of any country in the world. The coastal waters of Greece are shallow and penetrate far inland. The gulfs of Corinth and Saronikós, separated by the Isthmus of Corinth, divide the Pelopónnisos from central and northern Greece. Despite its indented coasts, Greece has few good harbors. The Gulf of Saronikós has the best anchorages, notably in the natural harbor of Piraeus (Pireás), which is the port of Athens. Corfu (Kérkira), one of the Ionian Islands, also has a good harbor.

D.

Plants and Animals

Greece has diverse vegetation. From sea level to an elevation of 460 m (1,500 ft), oranges, olives, dates, pomegranates, figs, cotton, and tobacco are grown. From 120 to 460 m (400 to 1,500 ft) are deciduous and evergreen forests containing oak, black pine, chestnut, beech, and sumac. Tulips, hyacinths, and laurels are also characteristic of this elevation. Firs and wildflowers such as anemone and cyclamen are found above 1,200 m (4,000 ft), and mosses and lichens predominate above 1,500 m (5,000 ft).

Wildlife in Greece includes boar, European black bear, lynx, jackal, chamois, deer, fox, badger, and weasel. Among the birds are the hawk, pelican, egret, pheasant, partridge, nightingale, turtledove, and stork. Marine life includes squid, octopus, cod, bass, whitebait, and red mullet.

E.

Natural Resources

Greece is relatively poor in natural resources. Bauxite, from which aluminum is produced, is the most significant mineral resource, and there are also deposits of asbestos, nickel, magnesite, and marble. The country has little black coal, and its lignite (brown coal) is of poor quality. The reserves of other commercially important minerals, such as chromium, copper, uranium, and magnesium, are relatively small. Greece’s small petroleum deposits, located under the Aegean Sea near the island of Thásos, are rapidly being depleted. There are no significant reserves of natural gas.

Greece’s forests, probably abundant in ancient times, have been significantly depleted. Subsequent soil erosion has made reforestation efforts difficult. Although much of Greece’s soil is rocky and dry, the country’s mountains are interspersed with small valleys where the soils are of the rich Mediterranean terra rosa (red earth) variety. Cultivated fields and orchards cover 29 percent of the country. The fertile plains of Thessaly, Macedonia, and western Thrace are prime agricultural areas.

F.

Climate

Greece’s climate varies according to region. The southern and central portions of the country experience the traditional Mediterranean climate of hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The continental climate of northern Greece is marked by colder winters. There is also considerable regional variation in annual rainfall, with areas to the west of the Pindus Mountains receiving far more rain than those to the east. The Ionian island of Corfu (Kérkira), located off the mainland’s northwestern coast, receives an average of 1,000 mm (40 in) of rain per year, whereas the average annual rainfall in Athens in central Greece is 400 mm (16 in). Snow is common in the mountains. The average January temperature in Athens is 10°C (50°F); the July average is 28°C (82°F).

G.

Environmental Issues

Athens is the most highly industrialized and densely populated city in Greece. Owing largely to the country’s rapid industrialization and its automobile emissions, air pollution is a severe problem in the city. Each year, hundreds of Athens residents are hospitalized because of respiratory problems caused or made worse by the pollution. Air pollution has also damaged many classical Greek antiquities, especially in Athens. In an effort to combat air pollution, the government restricts the number of automobiles allowed to enter the city, especially on days with high pollution levels. The government also encourages citizens to use vehicles that pollute less.

Water pollution is another issue facing Greece. Waste from many of the country’s industrial sites, in addition to all of the sewage from Athens, flows into the Gulf of Saronikós. Much of this waste is untreated. Water pollution from Greece has contributed to the severe pollution of the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean Action Plan, devised by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in the 1970s, has aided in slowing the rate at which the waters around Greece are polluted. The plan has been adopted by all of the countries surrounding the Mediterranean, as well as by the EU.

Many wetlands in the interior of Greece suffer from being drained for agricultural or other human activities, and they are in danger of further degradation. Several wetlands sites have been earmarked for conservation programs.

Greece is party to treaties concerning air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, ship pollution, tropical timber, and wetlands.