IV.

Church Structure and Organization

The Orthodox Church collectively is a communion (fellowship) of independent churches. Each is autocephalous, that is, governed by its own senior bishop known as a patriarch or metropolitan archbishop. In the early centuries of the church the bishops of the greatest Roman cities—Rome, Alexandria (Egypt), Antioch (now in Syria), Constantinople, and Jerusalem—were called patriarchs, and the area of their jurisdiction was called a patriarchate. Today 4 of these ancient patriarchates (all but Rome), along with 11 other autocephalous churches, together make up the Orthodox Church. All 15 of these national churches are united in the same faith and tradition of worship. They share common principles of church policy and organization and have a common liturgical tradition. Only the languages used in worship and minor aspects of customs differ from country to country.

The senior governing bishops of the autocephalous churches preside over national synods (church councils), which constitute the highest authority in matters of doctrine and administration in each church. The patriarch of Constantinople is universally recognized by Orthodox Christians as the highest-ranking prelate, although he has no power other than moral influence over the churches outside his patriarchate. The hierarchical order, or precedence of honor, among the 15 autocephalous churches has been determined by history rather than by the current number of their members. The communion of the Orthodox churches is as follows: first the senior patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, followed by the Church of Cyprus, the Russian Orthodox Church, the Serbian Orthodox Patriarchal Church, the Romanian Orthodox Patriarchal Church, the Bulgarian Orthodox Patriarchal Church, the Georgian Orthodox Patriarchal Church, the Orthodox Church of Greece, the Polish Orthodox Church, the Orthodox Church of Albania, the Orthodox Church of Czech Lands and Slovakia, and the Orthodox Church in America. After these comes the tiny autocephalous Church of Sinai (little more than the Monastery of Saint Catherine’s in the Sinai Peninsula) and, finally, the autonomous Orthodox churches of Finland, Japan, and China. The latter three churches began as missionary churches; they are largely self-governing and moving toward eventual autocephalous status. The Orthodox Church in Ukraine was moving toward autonomous status in the early 2000s, although this move was a point of dispute with the Russian patriarchate. The Orthodox Church in all other lands exists as a dependent congregation attached to one or more of the autocephalous churches.

A.

The Patriarch of Constantinople

The patriarch of Constantinople enjoys a “primacy of honor” in Orthodoxy because Constantinople was the administrative center of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, which between ad 320 and 1453 was the hub of Eastern Christianity. After the separation of the Roman patriarchate in the early Middle Ages, Constantinople assumed an undisputed seniority of rank among Orthodox bishops in the Eastern Christian world. Several ecumenical councils defined the rights of the patriarch of Constantinople, and in the 6th century he took the title ecumenical patriarch. His authority in the East, however, has never been comparable to the direct authority exercised in the West by the pope. Unlike the pope, the patriarch does not possess administrative powers beyond his own territory, or patriarchate, and he does not claim infallibility. His position is one of considerable moral authority, described as that of a bishop who is “a first among equals.” The other churches recognize his role in convening and preparing consultations and councils of Orthodox churches. Today, his authority extends over very small Greek communities in Turkey; over some dioceses in the Greek islands and in northern Greece; over the numerous Greek-speaking communities in the United States, Australia, and Western Europe; and over the autonomous church of Finland.

B.

Patriarchate of Alexandria

The patriarchate of Alexandria ranks second among the ancient patriarchates and traces its origins to Saint Mark the Evangelist, who is believed to have been the first bishop in Africa. It has jurisdiction today over the continent of Africa and has recently gained many African converts in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and other countries. After the early 5th century a large number of Christians in Africa refused to accept the authority of the ecumenical councils and separated from the Orthodox Church. The Coptic Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Union Church represent these groups today. The Orthodox patriarch of Alexandria, who is Greek-speaking, presides over about 300,000 adherents.

C.

Patriarchate of Antioch

The patriarch of Antioch now lives in Damascus, Syria, although he still carries the ancient title patriarch of Antioch. Antioch was once the third largest city of the Roman Empire and the largest city of the Eastern Empire. Its Christian bishop was one of the most powerful leaders of the Christian world until the 6th century, but after the rise of Islam the affairs of the Christian East fell into a long and drastic decline. The Orthodox Church in Antioch traces its founding to the apostles Peter and Paul. The patriarch of Antioch today is head of a significant Arab Christian community in Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq, as well as extensive communities of Syrian Christians who emigrated to North America. In the combined patriarchates of Antioch and Jerusalem there are about 700,000 Arabic-speaking Orthodox Christians.

D.

Patriarchate of Jerusalem

The patriarch of Jerusalem presides over Arabic-speaking Orthodox Christians in Jordan, Israel, and the Israeli-occupied territories of the West Bank. The church traces its founding to the first apostles who were resident in the holy city, especially James, the brother of Jesus. The Council of Chalcedon gave it the honorific rank of patriarchate in 451, but it has never been numerically or politically powerful. Today it is especially vulnerable, as the Christian population of the Holy Land steadily declined during the 20th century.

E.

Orthodox Church of Cyprus

The Orthodox Church of Cyprus traces its origins to the apostles Paul and Barnabas, who brought Christianity to the island in the 1st century. The church was a dependency of the patriarch of Antioch until the Council of Ephesus granted it autocephalous status in 431, with the right to rank immediately after the five ancient patriarchates. Ownership of Cyprus changed hands several times over the centuries as the island was conquered, but church relations with Constantinople never wavered. When the Ottoman Empire conquered the island in 1571 the Latin churches were completely destroyed and only four Orthodox bishops were allowed to continue. After the British took control of the island in 1878, the church enjoyed greater freedom, although the bishops were often focal points of resistance to colonial rule. In 1960 Archbishop Makarios III led Cyprus to independence from Great Britain and became the country’s first president. The head of the church is called the archbishop of Nea Justiniana and All Cyprus; his residence is at Nicosia. The church has about 500,000 adherents.

F.

Russian Orthodox Church

The patriarchate of Moscow and all Russia today ranks as the largest Orthodox church by far, although it occupies the sixth place in the hierarchical precedence of autocephalous churches. Russia was converted to Orthodox Christianity late in the 10th century, and the patriarchate of Moscow was established in 1589. It was the first new patriarchate created since antiquity. Many Ukrainians became Orthodox Christians in the late 16th century, and in the 17th and 18th century they passed into the jurisdiction of Moscow as their country came under Russian rule. The Russian Orthodox Church endured a difficult period of persecution after the Russian Revolutions of 1917. The new Soviet government imprisoned and executed great numbers of clergy and church activists, imposed restrictions on church activity, and launched an energetic campaign of atheistic propaganda. Thousands of churches and monasteries were closed, many of them being turned into museums.

The downfall of the Soviet regime in 1991 gave the Russian church new opportunities for growth, but also new challenges as Russia began to adopt the values of a Western-style secular consumer society. New efforts were undertaken in Ukraine to create an autocephalous Ukrainian Orthodox Church. The Russian Orthodox Church has about 75 million adherents. The Orthodox in Ukraine number about 25 million.

G.

Serbian Orthodox Church

The Serbs adopted Christianity in the 9th century as a result of Byzantine missions in Bulgaria and neighboring Slavic territories. These missions also oversaw the translation of the Bible into Slavonic. The Serbian church remained under the jurisdiction of the patriarchate of Bulgaria for most of its history. With the blessing of Constantinople, it became a self-governing archbishopric in the 13th century with Saint Sava as its first archbishop. The Serbian church declared its autocephaly as a patriarchate in 1346, and Constantinople accepted this status in 1375. But during Ottoman domination of Serbia from 1459 until the 19th century, the Ottoman sultans supported the patriarchate of Constantinople’s central jurisdiction over all Christian affairs in their extensive empire. The Serbian church lost its independence as a result. Constantinople again recognized its autocephalous status in 1879, and in 1920 it officially became a patriarchate once more. It is headed by the Archbishop of Pec, who is also Metropolitan of Belgrade and Karlovci, and Patriarch of all the Serbs. The church has its administrative headquarters in Belgrade.

The Serbian church, which had suffered much oppression during the period of Communist dictatorship, became politically vocal after the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1992 and participated in pro-democracy demonstrations calling for the overthrow of Serbian president Slobodan Milošović. The Serbian church has about 7 million adherents in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia, as well as Serbian communities in North America, Western Europe, and Australia. In 1997, in the context of post-Communist instability, a section of the Serbian church in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia declared its autocephaly as the Macedonian Orthodox Church, but other Orthodox churches did not recognize this status. The Macedonian church has about 1 million members.

H.

Romanian Orthodox Church

Christianity reached the Roman province of Dacia (the western parts of modern Romania) in the 4th century, and in the 9th century the inhabitants adopted the Eastern (Slavonic) liturgy. From the time of its early domination by Bulgaria, the church was placed under the supervision of Constantinople. Slavonic remained the chief language of the liturgy until the 17th century, when it was gradually replaced by Romanian. Today, the Romanians are the only speakers of a Romance (Latin-based) language who profess the Orthodox faith. With the emergence of nationalist independence movements in the 19th century, Moldavia and Wallachia voted for union as Romania in 1857, and two years later the church in Moldavia and Wallachia claimed autocephalous status. The patriarchate of Constantinople recognized that status in 1885. The Church of Romania was promoted to patriarchal rank in 1925 and united Orthodox Romanians of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire within its jurisdiction.

During the period of Communist dictatorship in Romania, the church was oppressed in many ways, but it retained its standing in the cultural life of the people and received more encouragement from government authorities than did Orthodox churches in other Communist countries. After the fall of Romania’s Communist dictator Nicolae Ceauşescu in 1989, the Orthodox Church began an energetic renewal program, rebuilding many churches and monasteries. The patriarch of Romania is the only Orthodox leader to wear distinctive white robes (like the pope’s) as daily dress. His headquarters are in Bucharest and he presides over about 20 million adherents.

I.

Bulgarian Orthodox Church

Bulgarian Slavs adopted Christianity in the 9th century. The church was first organized as an independent archbishopric under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople. By the 10th century Bulgarian was the language of the church, and in the early 10th century, by decree of Tsar Simeon, it became an autocephalous patriarchate in defiance of Constantinople. After Byzantine armies conquered Bulgaria in the 11th century, they suppressed the patriarchate, but the Bulgarian people reestablished it between 1295 and 1393. It again lost its independent status after Bulgaria came under Ottoman rule in 1393. The Bulgarian patriarchate declared its autocephaly from Constantinople in 1870, after Bulgaria gained political independence. But Constantinople excommunicated the Bulgarian church; the schism was not healed until 1945, when Constantinople recognized the autocephaly. The synod of Bulgaria granted the metropolitan of Sofia the title of patriarch in 1953, an act that was recognized by Constantinople in 1961.

After the collapse of Communism in Bulgaria, much conflict divided the church and its members, many of whom regarded the bishops as passive instruments of the Communist powers. In 1992 the new government tried to oust the incumbent patriarch and appointed a new one. A synod presided over by the ecumenical patriarch convened in 1998 and confirmed the right of the original incumbent. The headquarters of the Bulgarian patriarch are at Sofia, and he presides over about 7 million adherents.

J.

Georgian Orthodox Church

Georgia, in the Caucasus region of southwestern Asia, adopted Christianity in the 4th century, and the Georgian Orthodox Church dates to that time. It was first a dependency of the patriarchate of Antioch but achieved autocephalous status after the 8th century. In 1811, after the Russian tsars had annexed Georgia, the independence of the Georgian patriarchate was abolished, and it was forcibly merged with the Russian patriarchate. The Georgian church regained its independence after the Russian Revolution of 1917, although this status was not recognized until 1943 by the patriarchate of Russia. Only in 1990 did Constantinople recognize Georgia’s status as an autocephalous patriarchate.

Soviet suppression of religion was especially severe in Georgia, where the church served as a focus of national identity. Many churches and seminaries were closed as a result. The church underwent significant renewal after the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) collapsed in 1991 and Georgia regained its independence. In 1997 the synod of the Georgian church marked its opposition to increasing ecumenicism (reconciliation with other Christian churches) by voting to withdraw from the World Council of Churches. The Georgian Orthodox Church is headed by a catholicos-patriarch whose see is at Tbilisi. The church has an estimated 3 million adherents.

K.

Orthodox Church of Greece

Greece was part of the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople until 1821, when the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire began. Many Orthodox bishops in Constantinople and Cyprus were executed in reprisal for the war in Greece. In reaction to these executions, the church of Greece declared itself autocephalous in 1833, a status formally recognized by the ecumenical patriarchate in 1850. The church has authority over Orthodox Christians of Greece except for Crete and the Dodecanese Islands, which remain under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. The many Orthodox Greeks who immigrated to other parts of Europe and to Australia and North and South America during the 20th century retain close ties with their places of origin in the Greek mainland. However, the churches in the countries of immigration are generally directed from Constantinople. The Orthodox Church of Greece is headed by the archbishop of Athens and all Greece, who serves as president of a synod of bishops that governs the church. The church has about 10 million adherents.

L.

Polish Orthodox Church

When Poland regained its independence after World War I (1914-1918), it had a number of Orthodox Christians, especially Ukrainians, living within its borders. The Orthodox dioceses in Poland were then under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Moscow. The Polish government requested autocephalous standing for the church, which was granted by Constantinople in 1923 but not recognized by Moscow. After the USSR annexed eastern Poland in 1939, it returned the Polish church to the Moscow patriarchate. In 1948 Moscow granted autocephalous status to the Orthodox Church of Poland. The church is led by a metropolitan archbishop with headquarters in Warsaw. Its members—most of whom can trace Ukrainian or Byelorussian ancestry—number just over 1 million.

M.

Orthodox Church of Albania

Christianity reached Albania in the 4th century, although most Albanians converted to Islam after the conquest of Albania by the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. During the Ottoman period Christian Orthodox Albanians came under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople. Albania gained its independence from the Ottomans in 1913, and in 1922 the Albanian church declared itself autocephalous. Constantinople recognized that status in 1937. Persecution of all religious groups began after the Communists came to power in Albania in 1945, and the practice of religion was entirely prohibited by the Albanian government from 1967 to 1990. When religious practice was again permitted, no Orthodox bishops and very few priests were still alive in Albania. Since 1990 the church has slowly reestablished itself, with missionary help from other Orthodox churches. The archbishopric of Tirana and All Albania was instituted in 1991. A number of new churches have been built, and ruined churches and monasteries have been restored. New bishops and priests are being ordained. The membership of the church is estimated at 650,000.

N.

Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia

The patriarchate of Constantinople granted the Orthodox Church in Czechoslovakia autonomous status in 1923. The German occupation of Czechoslovakia during World War II (1939-1945) nearly obliterated the church, as the Nazis executed the bishop and sent priests to labor camps. The Orthodox Church in Czechoslovakia regained its autocephalous standing after the war, and it gained new members after Eastern Catholics were absorbed into it by decree of the Communist regime. Following the collapse of Communism in 1989 and the division of Czechoslavakia into two republics—the Czech Lands and Slovakia—in 1993, the church decided to retain its unity with only a partial expression of the political division. The church was administratively divided into two metropolitan provinces, one with headquarters in Prague in the Czech Republic, and the other based in Prešov in Slovakia. A metropolitan archbishop leads each province, and the synod selects either archbishop as metropolitan of the entire church. The church has about 50,000 members in the Czech Republic and about 20,000 in Slovakia.

O.

Orthodox Church in America

Orthodoxy reached North America with Russian Orthodox missionaries who arrived in Alaska in 1794. A Russian Orthodox diocese, established in Sitka, Alaska, had its headquarters moved to San Francisco after the United States purchased Alaska in 1868. Many Orthodox Christians immigrated to North America after the Russian Revolutions of 1917, and they formed the self-governing Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church of America. In 1970 that church was granted autocephaly by the patriarchate of Moscow. The church organized itself under a metropolitan archbishop based in Washington, D.C., and took the name Orthodox Church in America (OCA). It is governed by a synod.

Immigrants from Greece, other countries in the Balkans, and the Middle East also brought Orthodox Christianity to the United States and Canada during the 19th century. In many cases they have retained their ties to prelates in the country from which they or their ancestors came. The patriarchate in Constantinople exercises jurisdiction over all Greek Orthodox churches in North and South America. It has not recognized the autocephaly of the Orthodox Church in America, in part because it fears losing the large and powerful body of Greek Orthodox faithful in North America.

The Orthodox Church in America has as its stated goal the unification of all Orthodox Christians in the United States and Canada as a single Orthodox church. At present, many Orthodox churches exist in the United States apart from the OCA and the Greek Orthodox majorities. To achieve its goal the OCA encouraged the formation of the Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in America (SCOBA), who represent the various national Orthodox churches. Regular meetings of SCOBA are intended to ensure that all the historic churches develop a coherent and organized policy on matters affecting the Orthodox faith. The desire of many Orthodox communities in North America to retain connections with traditional ethnic roots, however, hinders the growth of the OCA into a fully indigenous Orthodox Church.