II.

Historical Development

China’s emperors were the earliest and most frequent patrons of the arts. Most artists and architects were government employees, working by royal order. In contrast, amateur artists, often retired or exiled officials, were free from the restraints of court control; their work reflects an important individualism that often differs from the imperial styles. The rise or decline of a particular royal household would affect profoundly the course of Chinese art. Although widely diverse in their cultural inclinations, all dynastic rulers shared an interest in preserving tradition. Chinese kings, especially those establishing a new dynasty, were anxious to gain legitimacy in the eyes of their subjects. A common way to secure support was to continue the artistic achievements of past dynasties. New influences, often entering China from India or the Middle East, were also sanctioned by the court, but any innovative ideas in art, religion, or philosophy were carefully woven into the preexisting fabric of Chinese life.

The art of China’s earliest dynastic periods, often called the Bronze Age, from the Shang to the Han dynasty, focused on the cult of the dead. Concerned with securing immortality and safe passage to the afterlife, kings and their officers constructed and decorated lavish tombs. The Chinese favored underground burials, and many tombs remain intact. Intricately fashioned bronze vessels, weapons, carved jades, and ceramic objects were placed near the coffin to provide comfort and protection in the next world. The walls of the burial chamber were often decorated with carved or painted ornamental scenes depicting popular legends or activities of daily life. Archaeological fieldwork, which has increased dramatically in China since 1950, has unearthed a wealth of ancient material.

Foreign travel and political turmoil affected the character of Chinese art in the centuries following the collapse of the Han dynasty in ad 220. Buddhism, introduced in the 4th century ad, brought new styles of architecture, sculpture, and painting from India. In addition, the Buddhist doctrine stressing the human spirit’s ability to transcend death caused a decline in opulent burial customs. By the time China was unified under the Tang (T’ang) dynasty in the 7th century, the subject matter of art had become more cosmopolitan and worldly. Secular architecture reached unprecedented grandeur; landscape painting and portraiture flourished; and technological advances in ceramics led to the development of fine porcelain during the Tang dynasty.

The dynasties following the Tang refined and expanded on its achievements. Landscape painting became an important expression of both art and philosophy, particularly among the wenren (wen-jen)—amateur painters working outside the court. At court, paintings of the favored subjects—birds and flowers, animals and children—were produced in vast numbers for the royal collections. Calligraphy, the art of writing characters, was elevated to a position of great significance. In addition to the pictorial arts, China’s most enduring art form, ceramics, reached new heights of technological and aesthetic brilliance. Royalty and wealthy subjects decorated their homes with an array of objects such as carved lacquers, woven tapestries, ivories, jades, and precious metals (Metalwork). Architecture, from the Song (Sung) dynasty on, also increased in sophistication. Many of the structures built during the Ming and Qing (Ch’ing) periods still stand in Beijing.

Throughout China’s history its artists were highly trained in specific skills and, with the exception of the amateur artists, were attached to large, well-organized workshops. Knowledge of materials and techniques was passed from generation to generation within families. Although the tools used by Chinese artists were relatively simple, such as a bamboo brush or a wooden beater, the construction of their looms, kilns, and foundries reveals an understanding of complex production procedures. The fast-turning potter’s wheel in the Neolithic period and the remarkable results of bronze casting in the Shang dynasty are testimony to the high technical skill of these early Chinese artists.