II.

Physical Geography

Saskatchewan is a long, narrow swath of territory that stretches 1,225 km (761 mi) from the 49th parallel of north latitude, the United States boundary, to the 60th parallel. In width the province varies from 632 km (393 mi) along the southern boundary to 446 km (277 mi) at the northern margin. It is the only Canadian province whose boundaries are drawn without reference to any natural feature. The area they circumscribe is 651,036 sq km (251,366 sq mi), of which 59,366 sq km (22,921 sq mi) are inland water. Saskatchewan ranks fifth in size among the provinces.

A.

Natural Regions

Saskatchewan contains portions of two major natural regions: the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south.

The Canadian Shield, a rugged, rocky, glacier-scoured region, makes up about 40 percent of the surface area of the province. Its southern edge begins north of the Saskatchewan River at the Manitoba border and can be traced roughly west-northwest across the province, through Lac La Ronge to the Alberta boundary south of Lake Athabasca. The shield is a complex area of old rocks, which are the eroded roots of ancient mountain ranges. In more recent geologic time, great glaciers moved across the shield, modifying its surface. The result is a low rippled surface, dotted with lakes and poorly drained tracts of land. Bare rock is exposed in some places. In other places the bedrock is covered by materials left by the glaciers or by meltwater from the once-great ice masses.

South of the shield is a part of the Interior Plains, which is a great sedimentary basin that lies between the shield and the Rocky Mountains. The plains are underlain by nearly horizontal rock strata. The surface, which slopes gently eastward, has been etched by rivers and modified by glacial ice to the point that it is far from uniform. Traditionally, three subdivisions of the plains, often called prairie levels, have been recognized within Saskatchewan.

To the east is the First Prairie Level, or Manitoba Lowland. A small section of it extends from Manitoba into eastern Saskatchewan, beginning at the margin of the shield and ending at a point south of the Saskatchewan River. In glacial times large portions of this lowland were submerged beneath the waters of prehistoric Lake Agassiz, and a great delta was formed where the Saskatchewan River entered the lake. Vestiges of this ancient delta remain in the level and poorly drained lands on either side of the Saskatchewan River, around Cumberland House. This part of the Manitoba Lowland is commonly called the Saskatchewan Delta.

West of the Manitoba Lowland is the Second Prairie Level. Its boundary with the First Prairie Level is marked by a long, broken cliff, called the Manitoba Escarpment, which faces east and rises above the lowland. It is breached by river lowlands and shows the effects of having been sculptured by the continental ice sheets. The Porcupine Hills and the Pasquia Hills are part of the Manitoba Escarpment. The plains, sweeping westward from this escarpment, strike the base of a second escarpment in central Saskatchewan. It is capped with material left by glaciers and forms a more or less continuous belt of hills, traceable from the U.S. border northwestward to a point not too far south of Lake Athabasca. The distinctive southern part of this escarpment, separating the Second and Third prairie levels, is called the Missouri Coteau. West of the coteau are the High Plains, or the Third Prairie Level. Geologically, this region is a continuation of the Great Plains of the United States.

B.

Rivers and Lakes

More than 12 percent of the surface area of Saskatchewan is covered by rivers and lakes. They are heavily concentrated in the northern half of the province, in the Canadian Shield. Of the thousands of lakes found here, the largest is Lake Athabasca, which is shared with Alberta. Second in size is Reindeer Lake, shared with Manitoba. Other large lakes include Wollaston, Cree, and Frobisher lakes and Lac La Ronge. Immediately south of the shield are a number of other sizable bodies of water, including Peter Pond, and Doré, Montreal, Primrose, and Cumberland lakes.

Most of the rivers of Saskatchewan flow eastward toward Hudson Bay. In the southeast the Qu’Appelle and Souris rivers feed into the Assiniboine-Red River system of Manitoba, which drains through Lake Winnipeg and the Nelson River into Hudson Bay. The central plains are crossed by the most important of the province’s rivers, the Saskatchewan, whose northern and southern branches join east of Prince Albert. It also flows into Lake Winnipeg. The Churchill River system in Saskatchewan is actually a series of lakes connected by streams. The Churchill River drains the southern part of the Canadian Shield and adjacent parts of the Interior Plains. In southwestern Saskatchewan, the Frenchman River feeds southward into the Missouri River System. Northern Saskatchewan falls within the extensive Mackenzie River Basin, which drains northward into the Arctic Ocean.

C.

Climate

The climate of Saskatchewan is continental, with great seasonal variations in temperature. The interior location of the province and the great barrier zone of mountains to the west combine to seal Saskatchewan off from the moderating influences of both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Winters are cold. January temperature averages are low, even in the south. Regina, for example, has an average temperature range in January from a high of -11°C (12°F) to a low of -22°C (-8°F); the lowest temperature on record there is -50°C (-58°F). The lowest temperature averages are found in the northeast, where the January mean is about -28°C (-18°F) and winter readings sometimes sink to -57°C (-70°F). Summers are generally hot in southern Saskatchewan, and warm weather is experienced all the way to the 60th parallel. The average range in July in Regina is from a high of 26°C (79°F) to a low of 12°C (53°F). A maximum of 43°C (110°F) has been recorded at Regina, and highs of more than 32°C (90°F) have been registered at Lake Athabasca.

Precipitation is relatively light, ranging from little more than 430 mm (17 in) per year near the Manitoba border to about 300 mm (about 12 in) in the southwest. Precipitation also diminishes northward, with less than 280 mm (11 in) normally recorded along the 60th parallel. More rain falls in summer, but it is concentrated during the harvest period of late summer. Winter snows are not heavy, but they appear to be because snow remains on the ground for long periods and drifting becomes a problem.

The length of the frost-free season varies within the province. In the southwest, particularly in the valley lands along the South Saskatchewan River, the frost-free period ranges from 150 to 160 days. Regina enjoys about 123 frost-free days, and Saskatoon has about 111. The far north has only from 85 to 95 frost-free days.

One important characteristic of Saskatchewan’s climate is the great variability in temperature and precipitation from year to year, which is often critical for agriculture. The growing season is normally short, and any abbreviation of it may mean crop failure. Snows have been known to fall on ripening grain. Since rainfall is modest, drier-than-normal years may cause drought. In wet years there may be floods or fields may become waterlogged.

D.

Soils

The soils of Saskatchewan vary greatly in character and productivity. The two primary categories are grassland soils and forest soils.

The soils associated with the grasslands tend to be of medium to high fertility. Deep black chernozem soils of high fertility are found in the areas of the tall-grass and midgrass prairies. In the drier short-grass areas, the soils are lighter-colored, brown prairie soils. They are also fertile, but lack of precipitation limits their usefulness. Forest soils are generally low in fertility. The podzol soils, soils that are formed by moist climates and are associated with the coniferous forest, are deficient in nutrients. The mixed forest is usually underlain by gray, wooded soil, also of limited fertility.

The parklands provide a transition in soils as well as in vegetation. Patches of gray, wooded soils are interspersed with tracts of chernozem. Many areas have what is called degraded chernozem, a soil of grassland origin that has been modified to some degree by the invasion of trees into the region. Despite their name, the degraded chernozems are usually quite productive. The vast swamplands between the Saskatchewan River and the Pasquia Hills, in eastern Saskatchewan, have potentially productive soils that require extensive draining before they can be used.

E.

Plant Life

Although Saskatchewan is one of the Prairie provinces, only a little more than one-fourth of its area was true prairie in its natural state. Tall-grass prairies were found southwest of an irregular boundary that could be drawn across the province approximately through Regina and Saskatoon. Farther southwest, because of decreasing precipitation, the tall grasses gave way to shorter ones, and beyond Swift Current true short-grass prairie prevailed. The original grasslands of Saskatchewan were either completely destroyed in the process of human settlement of the land or have been considerably altered through many years of livestock grazing.

North of the prairies was a zone of transition between the grasslands and the forests, called the parklands or aspen grove belt. This zone varied from about 90 to 160 km (60 to 100 mi) in width. Within it, patches of trees, or bluffs, occurred in a mixture with tracts of tall grasses. The parklands have been an important area of settlement, and settlers have removed most of its original vegetative cover. Aspen groves still cover some lands that have not proved agriculturally productive.

The remainder of the province was, and largely remains, forested land, known as the boreal forest. Here are found coniferous trees, notably spruce and pine, and deciduous trees such as aspen, poplar, and birch. In poorly drained areas are extensive tracts of muskeg, swampy land in which sphagnum moss and other water-tolerant plants grow. The southern boundary of the boreal forest is an irregular line connecting Kamsack, Prince Albert, and the Alberta border. South of that line is a zone of mixed forest in which aspen and birch are abundant but conifers are also present. In the northeast is a subarctic zone, which forms a transition between the boreal forest and the tundra.

F.

Animal Life

Animals that have survived from the days of the open range are the antelope, now protected, and the badger, now rare. The coyote still inhabits the open prairie, and the timber wolf roams the region farther north. The most common of the wild mammals on the prairie are the ground squirrel, or gopher, and the jackrabbit. In the northern timberland there is a variety of animals, including the muskrat, mink, weasel, beaver, black bear, and skunk. In the forest region there are moose, elk, and deer. Farther north, the caribou is common.

The lakes, sloughs, and swamps of Saskatchewan attract a vast number of water birds and waders. Birds include the Hungarian partridge, sharp-tailed grouse or prairie chicken, and pheasant on the prairie; the ruffed grouse in wooded country; the ptarmigan in the far north; and the Canada goose and a wide variety of ducks throughout the province. In addition there are the western and horned grebe, common loon, great blue heron, sandhill crane, and several species of hawk.

Fish include the common whitefish, tullibee, pickerel, yellow perch, black bass, and lake trout. The grayling is found in the far north.

G.

Environmental Issues

With few large population centers and limited manufacturing, Saskatchewan has few of the environmental problems typically associated with industrialization and urbanization. The main ones are largely related to the province’s extensive agriculture, which has transformed the landscapes of southern Saskatchewan and led to the disappearance of much of the native prairie habitat. Fertilizer and pesticide runoff from cultivated fields has contaminated surface and groundwater in some areas and has also affected wildlife. At the same time, intensive livestock operations (ILOs, large-scale livestock farms) produce vast amounts of animal waste. Without proper treatment, this waste can degrade water, soil, and air quality, and pose serious risks to public health. Other issues of concern include the harmful environmental impacts of mining, oil and gas development, and industrial forestry—activities that occur within a variety of biologically diverse habitats throughout the province.

The federal government enforces federal regulations dealing with certain kinds of air and water pollution. The provincial ministry of the environment is responsible for most provincial environmental programs. Its activities include the enforcement of regulations for the collection, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste, and the operation of provincial parks, renewable resource management, and wildlife management programs. In 2002 the provincial government established the Long-Term Safe Drinking Water Strategy (LTSDS), a water-management initiative, following an incident in the town of North Battleford in which thousands were sickened by contaminants in the public water supply. The initiative set in motion new processes to reduce known risks to water quality and improve watershed management to better protect human health and the environment.