III.

House Membership

House members are usually called representatives; they are also referred to as congressmen or congresswomen, although technically these titles apply to both House and Senate members. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, U.S. citizens for at least seven years, and residents of the state from which they are elected. Only an amendment to the Constitution can change these three requirements. Many states enacted laws in the early 1990s to limit the number of terms their representatives (and senators) could serve, but in 1995 the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that these laws violated the Constitution.

House members are elected by voters in congressional districts. When the first Congress met in 1789, it had 65 members who represented districts of no more than 30,000 people. The House added members throughout the 19th century as the country’s population grew and new states were admitted. A 1911 law fixed the size at 435 members. Today each House member represents about 650,000 people.

A.

Dividing Seats Among the States

House seats are divided among the states by population in a process known as apportionment. After every ten-year national census, the U.S. Census Bureau uses a mathematical formula to assign a specific number of representatives to every state. Each state is guaranteed at least one House seat, and seven states—Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Vermont—have only one. There are also five nonvoting delegates who are elected from parts of the United States outside of the 50 states. These delegates represent American Samoa, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands of the United States.

As the U.S. population shifts, states may gain or lose House seats. This process is known as reapportionment. Following the 2000 census, eight states gained seats and ten states lost seats. Arizona, Florida, Georgia, and Texas each gained two seats. California, Colorado, Nevada, and North Carolina gained one seat each. New York and Pennsylvania lost two seats each. Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin lost one seat each.

After the Census Bureau allocates House seats to reflect population changes, the states redraw their congressional districts to make the number of voters in each district roughly equal. This process, known as redistricting, frequently sparks bitter disputes between contending political parties. In most states, the state legislature controls the creation of new districts. Federal courts sometimes step into the reapportionment process, but state legislatures generally have broad authority. The party with the most seats in the state legislature tries to devise district boundaries that will favor that party in House elections. The majority party does this by drawing boundaries that spread its supporters over several districts, trying to ensure a majority of support in each. This makes it easier for the party to win House seats, but it sometimes results in contorted district boundaries. See Gerrymander.

B.

Campaigning for the House

Most representatives start their political careers in state or local government before they run for election to the House. These years of experience give them time to become familiar with issues affecting their districts, and it gives voters a chance to learn about the candidates.

Once they have demonstrated their leadership skills in local or state government, House candidates must find a way to raise enough money to run an effective campaign. The large size of the districts today makes it difficult and expensive to win election to the House. Most House campaigns rely on radio and television advertisements to reach voters. This television and radio time is very costly. Most campaigns also rely on direct-mail campaign leaflets sent directly to voters. Advertisements and direct mail are usually the largest expenses in running for a House seat. In 2000 the average winning House candidate spent $832,000 on his or her campaign. (U.S. Senate elections are usually even more expensive than House races because Senate candidates must try to win votes across an entire state. In 2000 the average winning Senate campaign spent more than $7 million, mostly on television and radio advertisements.)

The high cost of campaigns influences who wins House elections and how representatives act when they are in office. Incumbents—those who already have seats in the House—have a strong fund-raising advantage because donors tend to favor candidates who have shown that they can win an election. Although incumbents usually have a head start in campaigns because it is easier for them to raise money, incumbency can be a disadvantage if voters believe that their representatives have lost touch or are putting their careers ahead of the people they represent.

Because of the high cost of elections and the short two-year term of office, members of the House campaign almost constantly. They spend much of their time raising campaign funds, and they frequently return to their districts to keep in touch with voters. Because the elections are so frequent, House members tend to pay close attention to how their votes in Congress will be seen in the short term.

House members tend to come from wealthier family backgrounds than average Americans. Few working class people—those who work for others and receive an hourly wage—win election to the House. Racial discrimination has also been a barrier to House membership. Historically, African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans have been underrepresented in the House. Racial minorities have gained more seats in the House in recent decades as a result of the civil rights movement, but the proportion of minorities in the House still falls well short of their proportion in the population as a whole. Women have also found it difficult to win election to the House, holding fewer than 4 percent of the seats from the early 20th century through the 1980s. However, women have recently broken new ground; in the 107th Congress (2001-2003), 61 women served in the House, giving them 14 percent of the chamber’s seats.

C.

Responsibilities

Representatives constantly juggle lawmaking, tending to the concerns of voters, and campaign work. In Washington, D.C., members are expected to study and discuss proposed laws, attend committee meetings, attend floor debate or follow it on television, and cast votes in the chamber. To serve their constituents, they meet with citizens in Washington, D.C., or in the home district, communicate by mail or media, oversee their staffs, and help citizens deal with the federal agencies. Most return as often as possible to their home districts.

Members are given funds and up to 18 staff aides to help with these tasks. In addition to space in one of three House office buildings on Capitol Hill, most members maintain one or more offices in their districts—mainly to handle citizens’ requests and problems. In 2001 House members were paid a base salary of $145,100 per year. They also received a housing allowance and reimbursement for travel expenses.