IV.

Symbolism and Social Significance

Contemporary anthropological studies interpret funeral customs as symbolic expressions of the values that prevail in a particular society. This approach is strengthened by the observation that much of what occurs during a funeral is determined by custom. Even the emotions exhibited during death rituals can be dictated by tradition. Mourners who are unrelated to the deceased may be hired to wail and grieve. Also, the time and place where relatives are expected to show emotion may be defined by traditional rules.

Some anthropologists have noted that in spite of the wide variation in funerary practices, four major symbolic elements frequently recur. The first is color symbolism. Although the association of black with death is not universal, the use of black clothes to represent death is widely distributed. A second feature is the treatment of the hair of the mourners, which is often shaved as a sign of grief or, conversely, is allowed to grow to emphasize dishevelment as a symbol of sorrow. Another broad usage is the inclusion of noisy festivities and drumming at funerals. Finally, several mundane techniques for processing the dead body are employed in many cultures. The classical anthropological interpretation of the ceremonies surrounding death (like those accompanying birth, initiation, and marriage) is to view them as a rite of passage.

In terms of the society, the symbolic significance of death is most forcefully depicted in the funerals of rulers. Especially in cultures where the tribe or nation is personified in the ruler, such funerals often reach the proportion of a political drama in which the whole nation is at stake. The ruler’s burial is not simply a religious event; it is an occurrence with great political and cosmological consequences. The pyramids of Egypt, for example, became both a symbol and a proof of royal authority. Because the pharaohs were the living embodiment of societal permanence and of spiritual and temporal authority, these elements were all threatened at their death. The participation of their successors in the funeral rites provided assurance of continuity. In Thailand, after the cremation of the monarch, the new king and members of the royal family searched the ashes for fragments of bone. Some of these relics became the focus of a royal cult that indirectly stressed the continuation of the deceased ruler’s presence and authority. In societies as diverse as those of England, 18th-century France, and the Shilluk people of the Sudan, the funeral rituals for monarchs were related to cultural ideas about the nature of monarchy and the political order and to the maneuvering for power that takes place upon the transfer of authority.

Funeral practices in the United States have been interpreted economically, psychologically, and symbolically. Economic explanations interpreted the uniformity of American death customs as a product of ruthless capitalism and the content of these customs as expressing only materialistic values. Psychological theories explained the ritual process as a manifestation of fear and guilt related to the inevitable confrontation with death and as a mechanism to help mourners come to terms with their loss. More recently, symbolic interpretations have centered on the social context of funeral rites, considering them an expression of a core of life values sacred to the society in which they occur. In this view, American death rituals, which present the corpse so that it appears natural and comfortable for its last public appearance, are neither a manifestation of universal revulsion at confronting the decay of the body, nor an example of capitalistic manipulation and exploitation. Rather, they are a somber rite of passage that reflects American social and religious values concerning the nature of the individual and the meaning of life.