II.

Ancient Techniques

The application of signet stones is possibly the earliest known form of printing. Used in ancient times in Babylonia and elsewhere, apparently both as substitutes for signatures and as religious symbols, the devices consisted of seals and stamps for making impressions in clay, or of stones with designs cut or scratched on the surface. The stone, often set in a ring, was dabbed with pigment or mud and pressed against a smooth, resilient surface in order to make an impression.

The elaboration of printing from the simple stamping or signet-stone method to the process of printing on a printing press apparently occurred independently at different times in different parts of the world. Books copied by hand in ink applied with pen or brush were a significant feature of the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman civilizations. Such handwritten books were also produced in medieval monasteries and were greatly valued (see Illuminated Manuscripts). In ancient Rome, commercial book publishers issued editions comprising as many as 5000 copies of such works as the epigrams of the Roman poet Martial. This copying work was done by literate slaves.