I.

Introduction

Sufism, Islamic mysticism that began to develop in the 7th century, the first century of Islam. The term sufi (Arabic, “man of wool”) was coined in the early 9th century as a name for mystics whose ascetic practices included wearing coarse woolen garments, or sufu; soon the term referred to all mystics, whether or not they followed ascetic practices. Sufism arose out of various influences, among them a mystical overtone in some of the teachings of Muhammad, the founder of Islam; a desire to escape the hardships due to the social and political upheavals of the time; and a tendency toward quietism in reaction to the worldliness and extravagance of the early caliphs (see Caliphate).

II.

Mystic Knowledge of God

By the 9th century ad the Sufis claimed to have methods of finding mystic knowledge of God, or Allah. The Sufi mystic, described as a pilgrim on a journey, follows a path of seven stages: repentance, abstinence, renunciation, poverty, patience, trust in God, and acquiescence to the will of God. Then, with the grace of God, a higher level of consciousness is attained, in which knowledge, the knower, and the known are realized as one. Some mystics believed that the supreme experience of union with God could not be expressed in words; others who tried to express it scandalized the orthodox by ecstatically proclaiming their identity with God. Eventually, formal pantheistic doctrines (see Pantheism) emerged; statements that the universe and God are actually one further outraged the orthodox, who believed that God, as creator of the world, transcends it. In addition, although most early Sufis conscientiously observed the religious law, some scorned it outright, proclaiming their inner light a sufficient source of religious guidance.

III.

Growing Power of Sufism

In the late 11th and early 12th centuries, the Islamic philosopher and theologian al-Ghazali finally reconciled the orthodox to mysticism. He de-emphasized the pantheistic aspects of Sufism, maintaining, on the one hand, that the individual should strive to attain the Divine Presence, but, on the other hand, that the good Sufi must live in peace with the rest of the community. His interpretation of Islam, which stressed the personal, emotional relationship of the individual to God, was accepted by the Islamic community within a century after his death. Sufism then became a vital force, winning over many more people, especially in western Asia, to orthodox Islam.

In the 8th century Sufi monastic communities were founded where devotees practiced mystical exercises. In the Middle Ages the great Sufi orders, which had several million adherents, were established; about 100 orders still exist, many of them in Iran. One of the most influential founders of orders was the Persian poet Jalal al-Din Rumi, who, in addition to composing poetry and other works, instituted devotional dances, particularly those of the whirling dervishes (see Dervish); his disciples, called the order of the Malawiya (in Arabic), or Mevlevi (in Turkish), have their headquarters at Konya, Turkey. In addition to the members of these orders, many wandering Sufi mendicants, or fakirs (see Fakir), have appeared over the centuries. Many have been genuinely pious, but those who were merely fraudulent beggars brought disrepute to Sufism. From the Middle Ages onward, Sufism influenced many poets, especially in Persia (later Iran), where the most brilliant poetry has been Sufi (see Persian Literature).