VI.

Beethoven

Ludwig van Beethoven produced nine symphonies in which he introduced the concept of thematic relationships between movements. Previously, the themes in each movement had been independent. Beethoven vastly expanded the expressive possibilities of the symphony and made it capable of portraying an immense range of emotions. This powerful expression is present to a considerable degree in Beethoven’s first two symphonies, but it becomes especially significant in his Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major (1805), known as the Eroica (“Heroic”—it was initially dedicated to Napoleon). This work consists of an immense first movement filled with creative energy, a profound slow movement in the form of a funeral march, an ebullient scherzo, and a finale in the form of variations on a theme. In Beethoven’s symphonies the third movement, formerly a minuet, had become a lively scherzo (Italian for “joke”).

In his Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (1808) Beethoven introduced a four-note melodic and rhythmic motif that unifies the contrasting sections of the work. The Symphony No. 6 in F Major (1808), known as the Pastoral, describes the emotions aroused in the composer by the recollection of rural scenes. It uses some of the techniques of program music, telling a simple story and imitating such sounds as birdcalls and thunder. The Symphony No. 9 in D Minor (1824), considered one of Beethoven’s greatest works, ends in a choral movement based on the poem An die Freude (Ode to Joy), by German poet Friedrich von Schiller.