II.

Land and Resources

Scotland has an irregular and deeply indented coastline. The rugged western coast, in particular, is pierced by numerous inlets from the sea. Most of these inlets are narrow submerged valleys with steep sides, known as sea lochs. The larger and broader inlets are called firths. The principal firths are the Firth of Lorne, the Firth of Clyde (see Clyde), and Solway Firth. The major indentations on the eastern coast are Dornoch Firth, Moray Firth, the Firth of Tay, and the Firth of Forth (see Forth). Measured around the various firths and lochs, the coastline of Scotland is about 3,700 km (about 2,300 mi) long.

The primary natural harbor is located in the Firth of Clyde, where navies of both the United Kingdom and the United States maintain deepwater submarine bases. Another important natural harbor is Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands, historically a principal naval base for the United Kingdom. Today, Scapa Flow is a major port for the oil industry. Scotland’s main commercial port is Leith, on the eastern coast near Edinburgh. Leith is not a natural harbor, but its location is more convenient for coastal trade with mainland Europe.

A.

Natural Regions

The terrain of Scotland is predominantly mountainous but may be divided into three distinct regions, from north to south: the Highlands, the Central Lowlands, and the Southern Uplands. More than one-half of the land in Scotland is occupied by the Highlands, the most rugged region on the island of Great Britain and the least densely inhabited part of Scotland. The Highlands contain two parallel mountain chains that run roughly northeast to southwest. The rocky summits of the Highlands were carved by ancient glaciers and centuries of rain. Broken by deep ravines and valleys, the region is noted for its scenic grandeur. Precipitous cliffs, moorland plateaus, mountain lakes, sea lochs, swift-flowing streams, and dense thickets are common to the Highlands.

Dividing the parallel mountain ranges of the Highlands is a depression, or fault line, known as the Glen More, or the Great Glen. This depression extends southwest from Moray Firth on the eastern coast to Loch Linnhe on the western coast. Within the Great Glen is a chain of narrow lakes, or lochs, including Loch Ness. These natural lochs are linked by a series of artificial channels and together form the Caledonian Canal. Small craft can use this canal to sail through the Great Glen from coast to coast. To the northwest of the Great Glen lie heavily eroded peaks with fairly uniform elevations ranging from about 600 to 900 m (about 2,000 to 3,000 ft). Between the peaks are numerous valleys, known as glens, carved by glaciers. In the Highlands southeast of the Great Glen the topography is varied and spectacular. This region is traversed by the Grampian Mountains, the principal mountain system of Scotland. The highest peak of the Grampians is Ben Nevis (1,343 m/4,406 ft), the highest summit in the United Kingdom.

To the south of the Highlands lie the Central Lowlands, a low-lying belt of fertile valleys with an average elevation of 150 m (500 ft). Rich soils and most of the country’s coal deposits are found in the Lowlands. This region, which comprises just one-tenth of Scotland’s surface area, is home to Scotland’s leading industries and cities and the majority of the country’s population. Several chains of hills cross the Lowlands, including the Ochil and Sidlaw hills, as do several important rivers, notably the Clyde, Forth, and Tay.

The terrain of the Southern Uplands, a region less elevated and rugged than the Highlands, consists largely of a moorland plateau traversed by rolling valleys and broken by mountainous outcroppings. Only a few summits in the Southern Uplands exceed 760 m (2,500 ft) in elevation, the highest being Merrick (843 m/2,765 ft) in the southwest. The Cheviot Hills adjoin the Southern Uplands region along the boundary with England.

B.

Rivers and Lakes

Scotland is endowed with an abundance of streams and lakes. Most lakes are long and narrow. Notable among the lakes, which are especially numerous in the central and northern regions, are Loch Lomond, the longest lake in Scotland; Loch Ness, which according to legend contains a sea monster; Loch Tay; and Loch Katrine.

Many of the rivers of Scotland, especially those in the west, are short, torrential streams, with limited commercial importance. The longest river of Scotland is the Tay. The Clyde, which flows through the city of Glasgow and through the industrial heartland, is Scotland’s most important river and serves as a transportation outlet to the Atlantic Ocean. Other important rivers in Scotland flow east and drain into the North Sea. They include the Forth, Tweed, Dee, and Esk.

C.

Climate

Like the rest of the United Kingdom, the climate of Scotland is subject to the moderating influences of the surrounding seas. Temperate winters and cool summers are typical, and extreme seasonal variations are rare. Low temperatures, however, are common in mountainous parts of the interior during the winter months. In the western coastal region, where the moderating effects of the Gulf Stream are strongest, conditions are somewhat milder than in the east. The average January temperature of the eastern coastal region is 3°C (37°F), and the average January temperature of the western coastal region is 4°C (39°F); corresponding July averages are 14°C (57°F) and 15°C (59°F). The average January and July temperatures for the city of Edinburgh are 3°C (38°F) and 14°C (58°F), respectively. Precipitation varies by region and topography and ranges from about 3,800 mm (about 150 in) annually in the western Highlands to about 635 mm (about 25 in) annually in some eastern areas.

D.

Plant and Animal Life

The most common species of trees indigenous to Scotland are oak and conifers—chiefly fir, pine, and larch. However, centuries of human settlement have resulted in widespread deforestation, and large forested areas are rare. The only significant woodlands are in the southern and eastern Highlands. Except in these wooded areas, vegetation in the elevated regions consists largely of heather, ferns, mosses, and grasses. Saxifrage, mountain willow, and other types of alpine and arctic flora occur at elevations above 600 m (2,000 ft). Practically all of the cultivated plants of Scotland were imported from the Americas and the Eurasian mainland.

The only large indigenous land mammal in Scotland is the deer. Both the red deer and the roe deer are found. The red deer, whose habitat is the Highlands, is by far the more abundant of the two species. Other indigenous mammals are the badger, fox, rabbit and hare, otter, ermine, pine marten, and wildcat. Game birds include red grouse, blackcock, ptarmigan, pheasant, and waterfowl. Scotland is home to large numbers of seabirds, including the gannet, fulmar, and various species of gull. The few predatory birds include the kite, osprey, peregrine falcon, and golden eagle. Scotland is famous for the salmon and trout that abound in its streams and lakes. Scotland’s coastal waters are home to many species of fish, including cod, haddock, herring, and various types of shellfish, as well as to a variety of marine mammals, including the Atlantic seal, common seal, dolphin, and porpoise.

E.

Natural Resources

Scotland, like the rest of the island of Great Britain, has significant reserves of coal. It also possesses large deposits of zinc, chiefly in the south. Much of the soil is rocky and infertile, with the best arable land concentrated in the Central Lowlands and in flat eastern coastal areas. In the north and west, where the climate is wetter and soils are less productive, forestry and sheep raising are important.

Vast oil reserves were discovered in the North Sea off the Scottish coast in the 1960s and large-scale drilling began in the 1970s. Scotland has an intensive waterpower development program to increase energy supplies. The rivers of northern Scotland provide significant quantities of hydroelectric power, and the region contains most of the United Kingdom’s hydroelectricity-generating capacity.