IV.

Musical History

Chinese music has never stopped evolving and changing throughout the history of Chinese civilization. In the Shang dynasty (1570? bc-1045? bc), both female and male shamans (wu) led sacrificial rituals: singing, dancing, and acting as mediators between the world of the gods and that of humans. The Western Zhou dynasty (1045? bc-771 bc) was the golden age of court ritual music (yayue). From the Eastern Zhou through the Tang dynasty, a period which lasted from 771 bc to 907 ad, the most significant musical achievement was the varied entertainment music, combining singing, dancing, and instruments. Court entertainment music (yanyue) had its most splendid period during the Tang (618 ad-907 ad). During this period one Chinese emperor, Taizong (626-649), had ten different orchestras, eight of which were made up of members of various foreign countries and ethnic groups. Vocal music became the dominant entertainment form during the Song dynasty (960-1279); ci songs (songs set to poetry with strict tonal patterns and rhyme schemes, in fixed numbers of lines and words) and other singing narratives were the most popular musical genres. They were performed in markets, teahouses, restaurants, and the homes of officials by courtesans and singing girls.

Music theater has been the focal point of Chinese musical life since the 13th century. Its highest expression is Chinese opera, which has been performed for ritual and ceremonial functions and for secular entertainment, in both urban and rural areas, and enjoyed by both the elite groups and commoners. Zaju, the first fully developed form of Chinese opera, emerged during the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). Kunqu (Kun opera), the most influential and most highly esteemed Chinese classical theater, flourished and underwent much stylistic development during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Peking opera (jingxi), the best-known Chinese opera genre, was developed during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) under the imperial patronage. Since the mid-20th century it has been considered China’s national opera. See Asian Theater.