I.

Introduction

Wales, part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, united politically, legally, and administratively with England and occupying a broad peninsula on the western side of the island of Great Britain. Wales also includes the island of Anglesey, which is separated from the mainland by the narrow Menai Strait.

Wales is bounded on the north by the Irish Sea; on the east by the English counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford and Worcester, and Gloucester; on the south by Bristol Channel; and on the west by Saint George’s Channel and Cardigan Bay. The maximum north-south extent of the Welsh mainland is 220 km (137 mi); in an east-west direction the distance varies between 60 and 155 km (36 and 96 mi). The total area of Wales is 20,760 sq km (8,015 sq mi). Cardiff is the capital, principal seaport, and shipbuilding center.

II.

Land and Resources

Wales has an irregular coastline with many bays, the largest of which is Cardigan Bay. Except for narrow, low-lying coastal regions, mainly in the south and west, Wales is almost entirely mountainous. The principal range is the Cambrian Mountains, which extend north and south through central Wales. Other major highland areas are the Brecon Beacons in the southeast and the Snowdon massif, in the northwest, which reaches an elevation of 1,085 m (3,560 ft), the greatest in England and Wales.

The Dee River, which rises in Bala Lake, the largest natural lake in Wales, and flows through northern Wales and England, is the principal river. In the south numerous rivers flow through steep valleys, including the Usk, Wye, Teifi, and Towy.

A.

Plants and Animals

Most plant and animal life is similar to that of England. Wales has abundant ferns and mosses in low-lying, wet areas. Grasslands predominate at higher elevations. Some wooded areas, including stands of mountain ash, oak, and various coniferous species, are found in the mountains at elevations up to 300 m (1,000 ft). At higher elevations chiefly small shrubs, coarse grasses, and alpine flora subsist. Among the few animals found in Wales but not in England are the pine marten and the polecat.

B.

Climate

The climate of Wales, like that of England, is mild and moist. The average daily temperature in July is 16°C (60°F), and in January it is 6°C (42°F). Annual rainfall varies with elevation, ranging from 760 mm (30 in) in certain coastal regions to more than 2,500 mm (more than 100 in) in the Snowdon massif.

C.

Natural Resources

Coal was the most valuable mineral resource of Wales; deposits are located mainly in the south. Today, nearly all the coal mines in Wales have closed. Some high-grade anthracite is found, but output consists principally of bituminous coal. Slate and limestone are also commercially important, and limited amounts of manganese, gold, lead, uranium, copper, zinc, and fireclays are also found. Much of the soil of Wales is of infertile rocky or leached types. The most fertile soils are in the southeast and in a few coastal areas. Much of the electricity generated by the country’s large waterpower resources is exported to England.

III.

Population

The people of Wales, like those of Britain in general, are descendants of various stocks, including Celts, Scandinavians, and Romans. The population of Wales is 2,952,000 (2004 estimate). The population density was 142 persons per sq km (368 persons per sq mi). About three-quarters of the population is concentrated in the mining centers in the south.

A.

Principal Cities

The major cities of Wales are Cardiff, the capital, principal seaport, and shipbuilding center (2001 population, 305,200); Swansea, a seaport and center of the tin-plate industry (2001 population, 223,200); and Newport (1996 population, 136,789).

B.

Political Divisions

Local government in Wales was reorganized in 1996, when the 8 former counties and 37 districts were replaced by 22 new unitary authorities. Administration for each authority is the function of popularly elected councils.

C.

Religion

The Church of England was the established church of Wales and England until 1920, when it was disestablished in Wales. The Welsh branch of the Church of England, the Church of Wales, is the faith of about 110,000 Welsh. The next largest religious body, with about 72,800 adherents, is the Calvinistic Methodist church, known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales.

D.

Language

Both English and Welsh are official languages. English is spoken by most of the population. A small percentage of the people speak Welsh only; more than one-quarter of the population speaks both Welsh and English (see Celtic Languages). As part of an effort to preserve Welsh culture, the government supports Welsh language books, plays, and other artworks, and Welsh has been included in the school curriculum since 1970. The British Broadcasting Corporation operates two radio stations in Wales—one that broadcasts in English and one that broadcasts in Welsh—and contributes programming to a Welsh-language television station. There are a number of bilingual publications, and most road signs are in English and Welsh. In 1993 the Welsh Language Act gave equality to English and Welsh in government business and the courts.

E.

Education

The educational system of Wales is similar to that of England. In 1970 education was made bilingual, and in some districts instruction is given in Welsh, and English is taught as a second language. See England.

The principal institution of higher education is the University of Wales (1893). The university has branches in Aberystwyth, Bangor, Lampeter, Newport, and Swansea. It also includes the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff; the North East Wales Institute of Higher Education; the Swansea Institute of Higher Education; Trinity College, Carmarthen; and the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama. In 1992 the Polytechnic of Wales in Pontypridd became Glamorgan University, the second university in Wales. In 2004 the University of Wales, Cardiff, and the University of Wales College of Medicine merged to form Cardiff University.

F.

Culture

Somewhat isolated by a rugged, mountainous terrain, the Welsh have retained more of the culture of their Celtic forebears than have either the Scots or the English. A strong feeling of national solidarity exists in Wales, and a nationalist revival has received some political support, to the point that representatives of the Welsh Nationalist Party (Plaid Cymru) serve in the House of Commons in London.

The Welsh are well known for their love of singing, and their hymns and folk songs are widely known throughout the world. Music plays a large part in the annual festival, the Royal National Eisteddfod, at which Welsh poetry and Welsh folk arts are also featured. The Royal National Eisteddfod is held each year in a different locality, and Welsh natives and those of Welsh descent from all over the world attend. The International Musical Eisteddfod is also held annually in Llangollen. The international opera star Bryn Terfel got his start at eisteddfods. Other popular singers from Wales include Shirley Bassey, Tom Jones, and Charlotte Church.

The Welsh literary tradition is one of the oldest and richest in Europe, dating back more than 1,000 years to the bards—Celtic poets who composed, recited, and sang long epics. The most notable of the early Welsh bardic poets were Taliesin and Aneirin. Aneirin wrote Y Gododdin in about ad 600, a long poem describing the ill-fated efforts of a group of British warriors to recapture a fortress from the Saxons. The Mabinogion, composed between the mid-11th and late 13th centuries, is a collection of 11 prose stories and one of the most important works of early medieval European literature. The best known of the 20th-century Welsh-born poets are Dylan Thomas, R. S. Thomas, and Roald Dahl, though they wrote in English.

See English Literature; Welsh Literature.

F.1.

Cultural Institutions

Principal libraries include the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth, and the Library of the National Museum of Wales in Cardiff. Some major museums are the National Museum and Gallery in Cardiff, the Museum of Welsh Antiquities at the University of Wales in Bangor, and the Welsh Folk Museum in Saint Fagans. Notable performing companies are the Welsh National Opera Company and the Welsh Theatre Company.

F.2.

Art and Music

Wales has had few famous painters, but Richard Wilson, Augustus John, and Gwen John are world-famous Welsh artists.

Until recent years conditions and opportunities for musical composition, in the modern sense, did not exist in Wales. The long and rich folk tradition, however, has been maintained throughout the rural districts especially, and, since 1906, the Welsh Folk Song Society has done valuable work in collecting and publishing this material. Choral singing, stemming from the religious revival of the late 18th century, is an extremely popular and characteristic part of Welsh musical life. Traditional instruments, especially the harp, are still played. Local and national music festivals play an important role in the cultural life of the region.

IV.

Economy

The chief economic activities of Wales include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism and other service industries. The economy is largely integrated into that of the United Kingdom. Recent decades have seen fundamental changes in the Welsh economy. Coal mining and traditional heavy industries such as shipbuilding, which were the backbone of the economy from the 19th century, have died out. The service sector, by contrast, has greatly expanded, especially tourism and financial services. An influx of new, generally light, industries such as electronics has diversified the manufacturing base.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

About 80 percent of the land in Wales is used for agricultural purposes. In general the raising of livestock, mainly beef and dairy cattle and sheep, is more important than crop cultivation. Crops include potatoes and fodder crops, such as barley, oats, and hay. Forests cover about 12 percent of the land, and government reforestation programs are gradually increasing the area. The fishing industry is concentrated along the Bristol Channel.

B.

Manufacturing and Mining

Wales is home to a diverse manufacturing sector. The refining of metal ore, much of which is imported, has long been a major industry. Almost all the tin plate and much of the aluminum of the sheet steel produced in Britain are made in Welsh plants. Since the 1940s many new industries have been established. These include oil refining and the manufacture of plastics, electronic equipment, synthetic fibers, and automotive parts. In recent decades, production of sophisticated consumer electronics, telecommunications equipment, and other high-technology manufactures has expanded. Milford Haven, in southwestern Wales, is a major petroleum-importing port and refining center.

Mining, once a mainstay of the economy, is no longer a major source of revenue or employment in Wales. The rich coal fields and iron ore deposits of southern Wales helped fuel Britain’s Industrial Revolution. By the 1980s falling domestic demand and declining competitiveness in international markets forced most coal pits still operating in Wales to close. Welsh mines also produce limestone and slate.

C.

Tourism

The Welsh coast is a favorite destination for British vacationers, and its mountains have long attracted walkers and climbers. Since the 1970s tourism has developed into one of Wales’s most important economic sectors. The Welsh Tourist Board coordinates the promotion of tourism in the region. Its efforts are helped by the fact that one-quarter of the country has been designated as a National Park or Area of Outstanding National Beauty. National parks include Snowdonia National Park, the Brecon Beacons National Park, and the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park. The National Botanic Garden of Wales opened in 2000 near Llanarthney, Carmarthenshire.

D.

Government

Wales is governed as a part of England, and Wales is represented by 40 members in the House of Commons. Since 1999 Wales has had its own elected assembly, although it continues to send members to Parliament in London. The Welsh assembly, or Senedd, has 60 members and is led by an executive committee. Unlike Scotland, which obtained a new parliament, the new Welsh assembly does not have the power to raise taxes. It is only able to distribute the monies it receives from the British government. In 2007 the Welsh assembly was granted the power to make laws, with the approval of the London Parliament.

The new assembly took over most of the responsibilities previously handled by the secretary of state for Wales. Some of these responsibilities include economic development, the environment, education, local government, health services, housing, transportation, the arts, and language. The British government continues to control foreign affairs, defense, taxation, overall economic policy, social security, and broadcasting.

V.

History

The earliest inhabitants of Wales, like those of the rest of Britain, were a short, dark race, generally referred to as Iberians. These were succeeded by Celts, possibly first of the Gaelic division, although in the earliest historic times Wales, like Britain, was occupied by Cymric or Brythonic Celts. At the time of the coming of the Romans in 55 bc, the tribes of Wales represented a mixture of the primitive Iberians with the later invading Celts. They bore the general name of Cymry.

After a long struggle the subjugation of these tribes was completed during the ten-year reign of the Roman emperor Vespasian in the 1st century ad. The Celtic inhabitants of Britain, fleeing before the wave of Anglo-Saxon invasion, took refuge in the Welsh mountains, where, in time, they were merged with their native kin and maintained their independence against the Teutonic conquerors. The country was divided into several areas, of which Gwynedd, Gwent, Dyved, and Powys were the most important. Offa’s Dyke, built during the reign of Offa, king of Mercia, was an earthwork extending the length of the Welsh border; it helped isolate the Welsh from the English.

A.

Subjugation by England

Between 1062 and 1064 Harold Godwinson (later Harold II) overran Wales with an English army after a struggle with Gruffydd ap Llewellyn, king of Gwynedd. William I, the Conqueror, forced recognition of his sovereignty from the Welsh princes, but they raided the English border, for protection of which the early Norman kings erected a number of feudal lordships with very extensive powers, the so-called lords of the marches. The marcher lords were a turbulent class and a source of trouble to the kings, but they served their purpose in holding the Welsh back. In 1136 the Welsh won a victory over Henry I, King of England, but were again reduced to homage by Henry II. Llewellyn ap Gruffydd, Prince of North Wales, sided with Simon de Montfort against Henry III, but later submitted to the king. In 1273, however, he refused to pay homage to the new English king, Edward I, who in 1276 invaded Wales and compelled Llewellyn to submit to humiliating terms, including the surrender of the eastern portion of his lands and the annual acknowledgment of fealty. Llewellyn rebelled in 1282, but died, and his brother David ap Gruffydd, who carried on the struggle, was captured in 1283 and beheaded. In 1284 Edward I completed the conquest of Wales and, by the terms of the Statute of Rhuddlan, it became an English principality.

B.

Last Rebellion

In 1301 Edward I conferred on his oldest surviving son, later King Edward II, who was born in Caernarfon (Caernarvon), Wales, the title of Prince of Wales. This sufficiently satisfied the pride of the Welsh to keep them loyal for 100 years. It has become traditional for the firstborn son of each monarch to be given the title of Prince of Wales. The national spirit survived, however, and was nourished by the songs of the bards. When Henry IV seized the English throne, a revolt began in Wales, which, under the leadership of Owen Glendower in 1402, became formidable. Henry IV repeatedly invaded the country, but the revolt was not suppressed until the death of Glendower, about 1416. Glendower’s was the last national uprising. The Welsh submitted to Henry VII, the first Tudor king, whom they regarded as their countryman. Tudor policy toward Wales stressed assimilation and equality. By the Act of Union of 1536 Wales was incorporated with England, its inhabitants receiving all the rights and privileges of English subjects. Welsh representatives then took their seats in the English Parliament, and customary Welsh laws that differed with those of England were abolished. The Welsh gentry continued to exercise local authority in the name of the monarch, from whom they held their lands.

C.

Welsh Nationalism

In time, however, the anglicization of the gentry created a breach in Welsh society that was further deepened by religious differences. Slow to adopt Protestantism, the Welsh people were decidedly cool to Oliver Cromwell’s Puritanism and had to be persuaded by force. In the 18th century they began to lean heavily toward Calvinism, and the growth of the Calvinistic Methodist Church was an assertion of Welsh nationalism; it culminated in 1920 in the disestablishment of the English church in Wales. This coincided with party politics, for the Welsh voted overwhelmingly for the Liberal Party, which supported disestablishment. Wales in turn supplied the party with one of its most forceful leaders, David Lloyd George.

Welsh nationalism has been kept alive up to the present by the Plaid Cymru Party (founded in 1925), which has at times elected members to the British Parliament and otherwise kept pressure on the major parties to protect the special interests of Wales. In 1979 a Labour Party plan to devolve some powers to an elected assembly in Wales was voted down by the Welsh people by a margin of four to one. The Conservative Party that was elected later that year dropped any further plans for a Welsh government. In 1997 the Labour Party came into power supporting the idea of devolving some of Parliament’s powers to national legislatures in Scotland and Wales. In a referendum held in September 1997 barely more than half of Welsh voters supported the creation of a Welsh assembly, with 50.3 percent for and 49.7 percent against.

Elections for the new Welsh Assembly were held in early May 1999, and the assembly convened later that month in Cardiff. A Labour Party administration took control, although with only 28 seats it did not hold a majority in the 60-seat assembly. In 2003 elections the Labour Party won 30 seats, still one short of an outright majority. The election was notable for the low voter turnout (38 percent) and the high number of women assembly members (30) to take office. In 2007 the Labour Party lost ground, falling five seats short of a majority, and formed a coalition government with the nationalist party, Plaid Cymru. As leader of the largest party, Rhodri Morgan remained first minister, a post that he had held since 2000. Also in 2007 the Welsh assembly was granted the power to make laws, with the approval of the Parliament in London.