II.

Physical Geography

Florida ranks 23rd among the states in size, covering 170,305 sq km (65,755 sq mi), including 12,100 sq km (4,672 sq mi) of inland water and 3,395 sq km (1,311 sq mi) of coastal water over which it has jurisdiction. The major part of the state is a peninsula that extends southward for some 610 km (380 mi) to Cape Sable, which at latitude 25°7’ north is the southernmost point of the United States mainland. The peninsula has an average width of about 200 km (about 125 mi). At the southern end of the peninsula the Florida Keys, a chain of small islands, or keys, curve southwestward from Biscayne Bay to the Dry Tortugas. Northern Florida includes a narrow panhandle stretching for about 300 km (about 200 mi) along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. The state’s irregular shape gives it a large maximum extent: From north to south the state’s greatest distance is 724 km (450 mi); from east to west it is 758 km (471 mi).

Florida is a low-lying area with an average elevation of only 30 m (100 ft) above sea level. It ranks with Louisiana as the second lowest state in the Union, after Delaware. The highest point in Florida, a hill in the panhandle, is 105 m (345 ft) above sea level.

A.

Natural Regions

Florida lies wholly within two major natural regions: The Atlantic Coastal Plain and the Gulf Coastal Plain. The Atlantic Coastal Plain, in Florida, occupies most of the state and can be subdivided into two sections. The so-called Floridian section, or Florida peninsula, covers all of the region except the extreme northeast, where the Sea Island section extends into Florida from Georgia and the Carolinas.

The Floridian section lies south of a line joining the mouth of the Saint Johns River on the Atlantic Coast and Deadman Bay on the Gulf Coast. It is an extensive region of low, rolling hills and large swamps and marshes. South of Lake Okeechobee, much of the land is covered by the Everglades, a watery expanse of saw-grass prairie—which the Seminole termed Pay-hai-o-kee (“grassy water”)—dotted with cypress trees and Sabal palms, the state tree. To preserve the plant and animal life of the swamps, part of the Everglades has been set aside as the Everglades National Park.

To the east of the Everglades a low ridge of land several miles wide separates the freshwater swamps from the Atlantic Coast. Although the ridge is less than 3 m (10 ft) higher than the swamps, it is well drained and is the site of such south Florida cities as West Palm Beach, Fort Lauderdale, and Miami. A series of barrier islands, separated from the mainland by lagoons, rim the state’s Atlantic Coast. Miami Beach occupies one of these barrier islands. There is no continuous strip of higher land west of the Everglades, and the Everglades merge with a belt of saltwater mangrove swamps along the Gulf Coast.

North of Lake Okeechobee the interior of the peninsula is generally hilly and is pitted by numerous lakes. The highest hills are a little more than 90 m (300 ft) above sea level, but the area is sometimes called the Central Highlands or the Backbone of Florida. The hills are covered by grass and patches of palmettos, but extensive areas from Orlando and farther south have been cleared and planted with citrus groves. Part of the region is also sometimes called the lake district because of its numerous lakes. West of the lake district is an area known as the lime-sink district because of the many sinks, or natural basins, that occur in its limestone surface or subsurface. Small lakes have formed in some of the sinks.

The small part of the Sea Islands section in northeastern Florida is a flat, low-lying area. Okefenokee Swamp, a huge wilderness area on the Florida-Georgia state line, occupies much of the interior of the region. A wide belt of swamps and sandy ridges occupies the coastal regions. The largest area of well-drained land is a strip behind the mainland coastal beaches. A continuation of the ridge to the south, it rises up to 3 m (10 ft) above sea level and is mainly pine covered.

The Gulf Coastal Plain, in northwestern Florida, rises to 105 m (345 ft) above sea level, which is the highest point in the state, near the Alabama state line. From the low hills in the northern part of the panhandle the land slopes southward at the Cody Escarpment to extensive stretches of swamps, salt marshes, and pine forests that are found along the Gulf Coast.

B.

Rivers, Lakes, and Springs

The Saint Johns River, measuring 459 km (285 mi), is Florida’s longest river. It rises near the Atlantic Coast at about the middle of the peninsula and then flows northward to the Atlantic Ocean, east of Jacksonville. In the 19th century the Saint Johns was a busy waterway for the greater part of its course. Now, however, dense mats of water hyacinth render navigation almost impossible on the river’s upper course. The water hyacinth, a beautiful aquatic plant with purple flowers, was accidentally introduced into the region in the 1880s, and it spread with alarming rapidity throughout the upper reaches of the river. The plant is very difficult to eradicate, and it has also clogged the channels of other Florida rivers. To increase drainage of the Everglades, which drain naturally to Florida Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, a number of drainage channels and canals have been built across southern Florida.

Among the rivers flowing from the peninsula to the Gulf of Mexico are the Suwannee, Caloosahatchee, Peace, Hillsborough, and Withlacoochee. The Suwannee, famous as the Swanee River of Old Folks at Home by Stephen Foster, rises in Georgia and is navigable in its lower course. The Caloosahatchee River is also navigable and is connected with Lake Okeechobee by a dredged channel that forms part of the Okeechobee Waterway, also known as the Cross-State Canal.

In northwestern Florida several major rivers flow across the panhandle from neighboring Alabama and Georgia. Among them are the Perdido, the Escambia (Conecuh in Georgia), the Yellow, the Choctawhatchee, the Blackwater, and the Ochlockonee. The northwest is also crossed by the Apalachicola River, which is formed near the Georgia-Florida state line by the junction of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers. The Apalachicola River forms the lower part of an extensive waterway for barges.

Florida has more than 7,000 lakes greater than 4 hectares (10 acres) in size, most of which are in the lake district of the Florida peninsula. The largest one in the state is Lake Okeechobee, which also is the fourth largest natural lake wholly within the United States. It covers an area of 1,717 sq km (663 sq mi). It is a shallow lake, with a maximum depth of 6 m (20 ft).

Florida is noted for its springs, many of which bubble up from large underground reservoirs. Their waters are usually warm, 21°C (70°F) or more, and are very clear. Some of the springs are inhabited by alligators and a variety of fish. Many are fringed with mosses and ferns and are overhung by hardwood trees. A number give rise to swift streams called runs. Springs are also a source of water for major rivers, such as the Saint Johns. The best-known springs are Rainbow Springs, near Dunnellon, and Silver Springs, near Ocala. Each of these springs pours out more than 1.9 billion liters (500 million gallons) a day. Wakulla Spring, near Tallahassee, which is 56 m (185 ft) deep, is Florida’s deepest spring.

C.

Coastline

Florida has the longest marine coastline of all the states after Alaska. The coastline is 2,173 km (1,350 mi) long, but, including all indentations and islands, it measures 13,560 km (8,426 mi). The Atlantic coast, or eastern coast, has few indentations. There is an outer arc of sandy Sea Islands, many of which have been developed as tourist resorts. Behind the beaches lie long, narrow saltwater lagoons, which are called rivers on parts of the Atlantic Coast. The longest such lagoon is Indian River, near Cape Canaveral. Indian River is sheltered from the ocean by the offshore barrier Sea Islands, and it forms part of the Intracoastal Waterway, which is used by small coastal vessels and pleasure boats. The best harbor on the Atlantic coast in Florida is the estuary of the Saint Johns River, near Jacksonville. Just south of Miami is Biscayne Bay. South of the bay lie the Florida Keys, separated from the mainland by Florida Bay.

The Gulf coast, or western coast, of Florida is deeply indented. Mangrove swamps, uninhabited islands, and miles of beach fringe the coast south of Naples. A number of sandy barrier islands extend from Fort Myers to Tarpon Springs. The islands reappear farther north, just west of Apalachee Bay, and they continue westward to the Alabama line. Behind them lie extensive stretches of swamp and marsh. Hillsborough Bay at Tampa forms the state’s finest harbor. It is protected from the open waters of the Gulf of Mexico by a long line of offshore sandbars and islands. Other harbors similarly protected behind the barrier islands include Pensacola Bay, Choctawhatchee Bay, and Charlotte Harbor.

D.

Climate

Florida’s climate has been called the state’s most valuable natural resource. Most of the state has a humid subtropical type of climate, but the southern tip of the peninsula has a more tropical climate. The climate attracts millions of tourists and permanent residents who seek sunshine and warmth all year, but particularly in winter. It is also important to growers of crops that are easily damaged by frost, such as citrus fruit and sugarcane.

D.1.

Temperature

In the wintertime southern Florida is one of the warmest places on the U.S. mainland. Average January temperatures there range from about 18° to 21°C (about 64° to 70°F). Daytime temperatures in winter are generally in the lower 20°s C (70°s F) at Miami and other southern coastal resorts. In northern Florida average January temperatures range from about 11° to 13°C (about 52° to 56°F). However, temperatures vary considerably from day to day, occasionally reaching well below freezing.

Summers are hot throughout the state. However, temperatures are generally no higher than in many northern cities, and ocean breezes tend to modify the climate in southernmost Florida. During summer, Miami has an average temperature in the upper 20°s C (lower 80°s F). Although the south is closer to the tropics, it has fewer very hot days each summer than does the north.

D.2.

Precipitation

Rainfall ranges from more than 1,500 mm (60 in) in the Everglades and the northwest to about 970 mm (about 38 in) at Key West. However, rainfall varies considerably from year to year, and severe droughts and floods often occur. Most rain falls in summer, often during brief but heavy thundershowers. Snow rarely falls in the north and is almost unknown in the south.

Hurricanes frequently strike the state. Winds of hurricane force, accompanied by heavy rains and high seas, can cause widespread damage, especially in the south, where so much of the land is at or near sea level. However, modern construction techniques and an alert weather watch for potentially dangerous storms have helped reduce the losses of life and property caused by hurricanes. The risk is not gone, however; in August 1992 Hurricane Andrew ripped through southeastern Florida, killing 41. Cities in the area reported property damages in excess of $20 billion. In Homestead, near Miami, 90 percent of the city’s buildings sustained damage from the hurricane. In 2004 Florida experienced four hurricanes, the first time that many hurricanes have affected a state in a single season since Texas in 1886, according to the National Hurricane Center. The hurricane season lasts from late June to early November, but hurricanes occur most frequently in September.

D.3.

Growing Season

Florida has one of the longest growing seasons, or frost-free periods, of all the states. It lasts all year at Key West, and it varies between 310 and 365 days on the peninsula south of New Smyrna Beach. Farther north it decreases to about 250 days in the hills of the panhandle.

E.

Soils

Sandy soils, which are not productive unless fertilized, cover much of the state. Fortunately there are vast local supplies of fertilizer available in the phosphate deposits of the Florida peninsula. Well-drained sandy loams cover most of the lake district and are ideal for citrus groves. The best soils in the state are the muck and peat deposits of the southern peninsula, soil types derived from the decayed vegetation of the marshes and swamp forests. Used for growing vegetables, they can produce very large crop yields when they are properly cultivated. However, they require careful drainage, and in dry periods they need to be irrigated to prevent them from drying out and shrinking due to oxidation. Parts of the dry strip of land along the Atlantic coast and the lower Keys have hardly any topsoil at all.

F.

Plant Life

Florida is noted for its variety of trees and other plant life. Some trees and plants are native to the state, but various species have been introduced from other areas of the world, particularly from the tropics. Some of these introduced species, such as melaleuca, cogon grass, and Brazilian pepper, have become serious pests in natural areas and agricultural lands. The northern half of the state lies in the great belt of evergreen forests that occupies much of the Coastal Plain south of Virginia. The southern part of the state, however, is one of the few areas of the United States where subtropical ferns, trees, and flowering plants flourish.

The principal species of pine in Florida are longleaf, loblolly, and slash pines. Florida has some of the largest remaining longleaf pine forests, which once covered large areas of the southeastern Coastal Plain. Palm trees are found throughout the state. The Sabal palm, or cabbage palmetto, is the state tree. Other palms include a number that are imported, such as coconut and date palms. The bald cypress, pond cypress, black gum, or black tupelo, and water oak grow well in swampy, poorly drained areas. The live oak, so named because unlike other oaks it retains its leaves throughout the year, grows throughout the state. Gray-green Spanish moss festoons trees, especially the live oak and cypress, in moist areas throughout Florida. Among the many unusual trees found in Florida, especially in the southern part of the state, are the strangler fig, mahogany, gumbo-limbo, and sausage. The red mangrove is the principal species in the dense thickets of plant life in the swampy lands along the coast.

Native flowering plants of note include the southern magnolia, Jamaica dogwood, Spanish bayonet, and rhododendron. Imported plants such as the hibiscus, royal poinciana, bougainvillea, gardenia, and camellia flourish in the warm southern region. The blossom of the orange tree is the state flower.

G.

Animal Life

The Everglades and cypress swamps of southern Florida provide one of the last refuges in the eastern United States for a number of wild animals. Among the most rarely seen there is the so-called Florida panther; the only cougar found east of the Mississippi today, it is classified as an endangered species and protected by state and federal law. The black bear is numerous in northern forests. The white-tailed deer is common throughout the state. The tiny Key deer, found only in the lower Keys, is protected by state and federal law. Other animals in the state include the gray squirrel, fox squirrel, cottontail rabbit, marsh rabbit, gray fox, raccoon, opossum, bobcat, and nine-banded armadillo. Wild pigs, descendants of domestic hogs that escaped into the wilderness, are found in some swampy areas. The manatee, or sea cow, a marine animal that was once hunted almost to extinction, is still occasionally seen along the bays and river estuaries of Florida.

Reptiles flourish in Florida. Alligators are numerous in the rivers, lakes, and swamps throughout the state, and occasionally, crocodiles are seen in coastal inlets at the southern tip of the peninsula. Both are protected by law, but a limited harvest of alligators is permitted. Snakes are found in large numbers, but only a few species are poisonous. They are the coral snake, the water moccasin, or cottonmouth, and two species of rattlesnakes. Marine turtles are found along the coast, and land turtles are sometimes seen inland.

An estimated 400 species of birds are native to Florida. Among the water birds found there are the roseate spoonbill, the anhinga, or water turkey, several species of egrets, and herons. The brown pelican is common, and the white pelican is occasionally seen soaring effortlessly in the sky. Florida also has many species of vireos, warblers, hawks, and sparrows. The mockingbird is Florida’s state bird. Among the unusual or rare birds of Florida are the white-crowned pigeon, the mangrove cuckoo, and the Florida jay, which has never been recorded outside of Florida. Major game birds include the turkey, mourning dove, bobwhite quail, and waterfowl such as ducks and geese.

Saltwater fish along Florida’s coasts include the barracuda, sailfish, tarpon, bonefish, pompano, black mullet, red snapper, gray snapper, menhaden, marlin, wahoo, weakfish, amberjack, sea bass, and snook. Most of them are game or food fish. In addition, many brightly colored tropical fish are found in Florida waters, and dolphins and sharks are common along both coasts. Freshwater fish include the black bass, speckled perch, bream, and bluegill. Shellfish include shrimp, crab, spiny lobster, oyster, scallop, conch, and coquina (small clams). The most substantial bed of living corals in the United States outside Hawaii is found along the southern tip of the peninsula and off the Florida Keys.

H.

Conservation

The state and federal governments maintain a number of programs for the conservation of Florida’s natural resources, particularly forests, fisheries, wildlife, soils, and water supply. In 1993 the Florida legislature combined the state departments of natural resources and environmental regulation into the Department of Environmental Protection. The new department is responsible for all aspects of protection and conservation. Federal agencies active in the state include the United States Forest Service, which administers the national forests, and the National Park Service. In 2006 the state had 50 hazardous waste sites on a national priority list for cleanup due to their severity or proximity to people. Between 1995 and 2000 the amount of toxic chemicals discharged into the environment increased by 27 percent.

Florida’s extensive pine forests were once seriously depleted by over-cutting and by improper methods for obtaining turpentine from the trees. However, their economic value has been restored through reforestation efforts.

Soil erosion is not a major problem in most of Florida. Only the northwestern corner of the panhandle has suffered serious erosion. However, in the Everglades, hundreds of acres of valuable peat and muck soil have been destroyed by overdraining or burned as a result of accidental fire in drained swamplands.

As one of the wettest states in the nation, Florida has ample supplies of water. Most of the annual rainfall seeps down through the limestone rock, where it makes its way slowly to the sea through deep underground reservoirs. The state’s water supply comes primarily from wells that tap these vast underground reservoirs. In some coastal areas the underground freshwater reserves have been overdrawn and contaminated by intruding salt water. Where excessive amounts of water have been pumped out to supply the rapidly growing urban centers, the level of water in the natural reservoirs has been lowered and salt water from the sea has filtered in. In an effort to prevent this saltwater intrusion, the legislature enacted the 1957 Water Resources Law to develop a system of water rights allocation. The program also included provisions for implementing a number of flood control and drainage projects in the state.

Oil spills and stream pollution by inadequately treated waste have created new concern for preserving a wholesome water supply. Both public and private agencies are now seeking ways of avoiding further pollution of Florida waters, but much remains to be done.