II.

Koryŏ Period (918-1392)

During the 9th century Silla’s monarchy and governing institutions declined, and regional leaders gained strength at the expense of the central government. From 890 to 935 the three main kingdoms reemerged on the peninsula. This time the northern state, Koryŏ (Goryeo), accomplished unification. (The name Koryŏ, which is derived from Koguryŏ, is reflected in the modern Western name, Korea.) Founded in 918 by an astute warrior and statesman named Wang Kŏn, Koryŏ brought Korea’s regional leaders under a single central authority and extended the frontiers of the country north to the Yalu River. Here Koryŏ came into conflict with the Liao dynasty of the Khitans, fighting wars from 993 to 1018. Peace was achieved in 1022, with Koryŏ regaining all the territory contested by the Liao dynasty.

The full flowering of Koryŏ culture took place in the 1100s. It was marked by a stable central government, influenced by Chinese political institutions and methods; a vigorous Buddhist faith that inspired many achievements in scholarship and art; and a particularly distinctive ceramics industry that produced exquisite celadons—stoneware with a gray-green, iron-pigmented glaze—which are still appreciated today. In the early 12th century, however, stability began to give way. Powerful aristocratic families contended with the throne for political control, and the Manchurian Jin (Chin) dynasty added pressure from outside, provoking divisive responses from a now uncertain leadership. In 1170 a group of military officers, who felt civilian officials had too much power, threw out the officials and turned the kings into figureheads controlled by the officers, thus beginning a period of internal strife. The Mongols invaded Korea in 1231, launching a series of wars that ended with their conquest of Koryŏ in 1259. Under the Mongols the Korean kings recovered their power from the military. Koryŏ was able to drive out the Mongols in 1356, but in the long run it was unable to restore its institutions or contain the new political forces it encountered. In 1392, after nearly 500 years, the state came to an end.