III.

History

Until comparatively recent times knowledge of Arabia was limited to that provided by ancient Greek and Roman writers and by a few Arab geographers; a large part of this material was unreliable. In the 20th century, however, archaeological exploration has added considerably to the knowledge of the area.

The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighboring areas. About 3500 bc, Semitic-speaking peoples of Arabian origin migrated into the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, supplanted the Sumerians, and became the Assyro-Babylonians. Another group of Semites left Arabia about 2500 bc and settled along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea; some of these migrants became the Amorites and Canaanites of later times.

A.

Ancient Kingdoms

The better watered, higher portions of southwest Arabia supported three early kingdoms. The first, the Minaean, was centered in the interior of what is now Yemen, but probably embraced most of southern Arabia. Although dating is difficult, it is generally believed that the Minaean kingdom existed from 1200 to 650 bc. The second kingdom, the Sabaean (see Saba’), was founded about 930 bc and lasted until about 115bc; it probably supplanted the Minaean kingdom and occupied substantially the same territory. The Sabaean capital and chief city, Ma‘rib, probably flourished as did no other city of ancient Arabia, partly because it was a focal point of caravan routes between seaports of the Mediterranean and the frankincense-growing region of the Hadhramaut and partly because a large nearby dam provided water for irrigation. The Sabaean Kingdom was widely referred to as Saba’, and it has been suggested that the queen of Sheba mentioned in the Bible, who visited King Solomon of Israel in Jerusalem in the 10th century bc, was Sabaean. The Himyarites followed the Sabaeans as the leaders in southern Arabia; the Himyarite Kingdom lasted from about 115 bc to about ad525. In 24 bc the Roman emperor Augustus sent the prefect of Egypt, Aelius Gallus, against the Himyarites, but his army of 10,000, which was unsuccessful, returned to Egypt. The Himyarites prospered in the frankincense, myrrh, and spice trade until the Romans began to open the sea routes through the Red Sea.

B.

From Nabataeans to Persians

Several states are known to have existed in northern Arabia in the pre-Christian and early Christian era. Earliest among these was the Nabataean Kingdom, which for a brief period (about 9bc to ad40) extended as far north as Damascus, in present-day Syria. The ruins of Petra, the Nabataean capital city, attest to a high degree of culture. The Nabataean form of writing developed into the Arabic script used in the Qur'an (Koran), the holy book of Islam. Rome gained control of the Nabataean Kingdom in ad 106 and established most of it as the Roman province of Arabia Petraea, which lasted little longer than a century. Other north Arabian states were established by other invading peoples.

In the 4th century the Abyssinians, who had adopted Christianity of the Monophysite type (see Monophysitism), spread into Arabia, conquering a large part of it. Judaism, too, was introduced into the region. Both religions were established and to a considerable degree supplanted the existing religious beliefs, which were based mainly on astrology and occultism. Late in the following century, Persia, under the Sassanid kings, assumed control of a substantial part of Arabia, particularly of the region occupied by present-day Yemen.

C.

Islam and the Caliphate

The rise of Islam was the most significant event in the history of Arabia. Muhammad was born in Mecca about 570 and died in Medina in 632. Mecca became the spiritual center of the new religion. From 632 to 661 Medina was the political center of a united Muslim state under the caliphs (vice regents) who followed Muhammad. Arabian armies conquered Syria, Egypt, and Sassanid Persia. After Egypt fell in 642, the tide of Muslim conquest swept west over the whole of northern Africa and then over the Spanish Peninsula. Upon the removal of the caliphate to Damascus in 658, Arabia became less important. The shift of the center of Islam to Baghdād in 751 resulted in a further decline.

From the 8th to the early 10th century Arabia was merely a province under the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdād. Then the rule of Baghdād was successfully contested by the Qarmatians, a new Muslim sect, who controlled all of Arabia for a time during the 10th century. Toward the end of the 10th century the Qarmatians lost their power to various Bedouin tribes, and Arabia, again completely disunited, was divided among numerous petty governments. From 1075 to 1094, however, Arabia acknowledged the spiritual leadership of the Abbasid caliph at Baghdād. In 1258 the Mongols conquered Baghdād, and from that time on Baghdād had no influence over Arabia. In 1269 Mecca and Al Ḩijāz (the Hejaz) region came under the control of emirs (Muslim princes) from Egypt. When the Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517, they took control of Al Ḩijāz and thereafter exerted considerable power in the rest of Arabia.

D.

The Wahhabis

The history of Arabia from about 1750 to the present time is to a great extent the history of the Wahhabis. Under the founder of this religious sect, the stern reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, not only was a great religious revival initiated in Arabia, but Arabian national spirit was aroused against Ottoman domination. The Wahhabis took Mecca from the Ottomans in 1802 and Medina in 1804. In this period the Wahhabi empire extended to the boundaries of modern Yemen and Oman. Under the leadership of the viceroy of Egypt, however, the Ottomans regained the two cities in 1812.

The conflict between the Ottomans and the Wahhabis endured until the end of World War I in 1918; in the last quarter of the 19th century there was also considerable warfare between various Wahhabi factions. By 1906 the Wahhabis had come under the leadership of the resourceful and intelligent Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, sultan of Najd, and under his direction the Wahhabi state expanded greatly. In World War I Ibn Saud cooperated with Great Britain in fighting the Ottoman Empire. Final Ottoman defeat resulted in its expulsion from Al Ḩijāz, ‘Asīr, and Yemen. Six years of civil war followed between adherents of Ibn Saud and followers of various other Arabian princes and chieftains. In 1924 and 1925, Ibn Saud conquered Al Ḩijāz, becoming its king in 1926. In 1927 he proclaimed himself king of Al Ḩijāz and of Najd and its dependencies, and in 1932 he gave his two dominions the name of Saudi Arabia. His annexation of the principality of ‘Asīr to Al Ḩijāz in 1933 caused a war (March to May 1934) between Ibn Saud and the imam of Yemen. The treaty signed by the two countries on May 20, 1934, provided that ‘Asīr and the inland region of Najrān were to remain within Saudi Arabia.

For the subsequent history of Arabia and of its various political divisions and for other information on these states, see Bahrain; Kuwait; Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; United Arab Emirates; Yemen, Republic of.