I.

Introduction

Armenia (region), historic region of western Asia, which in ancient times was an independent country comprising the southern Caucasus and northeastern Asia Minor. The southwestern part of the region now belongs to Turkey, the southeastern part to Iran, and the northwestern part to Armenia. The region is a complex of plateaus traversed by mountain ranges; the highest point is Mount Ararat (5,165 m/16,945 ft). It is drained by the headstreams of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Aras rivers; the principal lakes are Van, Urmia, and Sevan. Armenia has a generally healthful climate that varies between the subtropical and subtemperate. Sections of the region, especially the river valleys, are highly arable and contain rich vineyards and orchards. The high tablelands are chiefly pastoral. Armenia contains a variety of mineral deposits. In the Republic of Armenia portion, the mineral and agricultural resources are intensively exploited, but the Turkish and Iranian sections of historic Armenia are poorly developed.

The geographical origins of the Armenians are obscure, but ethnologically they are classified as Caucasoid, and linguistically as Indo-European. According to some authorities, their ancestors include the aboriginal people of the region; the Chaldeans, who occupied it late in the 2nd millennium bc; and later invaders. The majority of modern Armenians dwell in the region, with the remainder scattered throughout Asia, Europe, and America, especially California.

The valley of the Araxes (now Aras) River and the plateau around Van Gölü (Lake Van) was the dominion, from about 1270 to 850 bc, of a kingdom, sometimes called Van, but known in nearby Assyria as Urartu (Hebrew Ararat).

II.

Persian Conquest

The name Armenia first appeared in the Behistun inscription of Darius I, king of Persia about 521 bc. In 612 bc Armenia was conquered by Media, which ruled it until 549 bc. Cyrus the Great, king of Persia and founder of the Persian Empire, seized the country in 549 bc, whereupon it became a satrapy of Persia. Some years after the death (323 bc) of Alexander the Great, who had conquered Persia, Armenia became independent. Antiochus III, king of Syria, conquered it in 212 bc and divided it into two satrapies under Armenian princes. These satrapies were independent kingdoms from 190 bc until 94 bc, when Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, reunited them under his rule. Tigranes conquered parts of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, but was beaten by the Romans in 69 bc. As a result, Armenia became a satellite of Rome.

In the struggles between Rome and the Parthians, who had become masters of Persia, Armenia remained neutral and autonomous whenever possible. When the Sassanian Persians overthrew the Parthians in the 3rd century ad, they seized Armenia, but the Arsacid king Tiridates III, with the aid of Roman emperor Diocletian, liberated the country. Tiridates was converted to Christianity in 303 and established a state church some 20 years before Roman emperor Constantine the Great made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire.

III.

Christian Armenia

As a center of Christianity, Armenia opposed the Zoroastrian Persians after the 4th century. The conquest of Persia by the Arabs in 642 was followed by their overlordship in Armenia. In 653, however, the Arab caliph chose an Armenian prince to administer the country, designating him patrician of Armenia. In time the patricians became virtual kings, and in 886 the Bagratuni dynasty reestablished the Armenian kingdom, and ruled the country during the 9th and 10th centuries. Many churches and vast irrigation works survive from that era.

The major enemies of medieval Armenia were the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuks, who overran the country in the 11th century. Constant warfare drove many Armenians to seek homes elsewhere; one group founded a kingdom called Lesser Armenia, which included the ancient region of Cilicia, in 1082; it lasted until 1375.

IV.

A Country Divided

About 1240 Armenia was invaded by the Mongols, who ruled it until the early 15th century. A period of confusion, during which Iran for a short time controlled Armenia, ended when the Ottomans conquered most of the region in the 16th century. Thereafter it suffered ceaseless warfare between the Ottoman Empire and Iran. The Armenians remaining in the Iranian-controlled part were removed to another part of the country early in the 17th century, while those in the Ottoman part, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, were reorganized under the leadership of an Armenian bishop. They were given a large degree of religious, cultural, and political autonomy. Yet, Russian conquests in the Caucasus in the 19th century were welcomed by the Armenians. After the Russians captured part of the region in 1828-1829, most Armenians moved into the Russian-conquered area. At first the Russians welcomed them, possibly hoping that a friendly attitude would make the Armenians in the Ottoman region their allies in the event of further hostilities.

V.

Ottoman Atrocities

Similar considerations of power politics involved Britain in Armenian affairs. In order to offset the role assumed by Russia as protector of Armenian Christendom, the British undertook to act as protector of the Armenians in present-day Turkey, which was at that time under British influence. As a result of such foreign intervention, factions appeared among the Armenians, stimulating the development of nationalism, but directing it along divergent paths. Part of the Armenian leadership emphasized loyalty to the Ottomans, but other groups engaged in activities the Ottomans considered subversive. Ottoman reprisals took the form of atrocities that shocked the world, including massacres of an estimated 200,000 Armenians in 1896 alone. Meanwhile the Russians, disturbed by the effect among Armenians of British propaganda against them, forbade the Armenians to speak their own language and to have their own schools and churches. They also deported various nationalist leaders to Siberia. British “protection” proved worthless.

During World War I (1914-1918) Armenia became a battleground for Russian and Ottoman armies. Between January and August 1916, the Russians conquered the greater part of Ottoman Armenia, but the revolution in 1917 forced their withdrawal, and the Ottomans reoccupied the country.

As the war raged on, Ottoman atrocities against Armenians increased, leading the government of the United States to send a formal note of protest to the Ottoman Empire on February 17, 1916. The Ottoman government ordered massive deportations of Armenians from their homelands in Ottoman-held territory mainly to the deserts of present-day Syria. Many Armenians perished from starvation and disease or were killed by Ottoman soldiers during the forced marches.

VI.

Modern Armenia

On May 26, 1918, Armenians formerly under tsarist rule declared their independence, establishing the Armenian Autonomous Republic, which was recognized by the Allies in 1920.

During the Greco-Turkish war of 1920-1922 the Armenians sided with the Greeks against the Turkish nationalist forces led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Again the victorious Turks inflicted severe reprisals on them. In addition, the Turks invaded the republic, which they had refused to recognize. A settlement was finally reached in 1921, by which the republic of Armenia ceded about half its lands in the Caucasus to the Turks. In 1922 the Armenian republic joined with the Soviet Socialist republics of Azerbaijan and Georgia to form the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (SFSR), which became one of the four original republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). A separate Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was formed in 1936.

Claims of discrimination against the Armenian minority still residing in the Azerbaijan SSR led to widespread sectarian fighting in the 1980s. In 1990 the Supreme Soviet of Armenia declared the country a sovereign republic and elected Levon A. Ter-Petrossian, leader of the Pan-Armenian National Movement, as its president. In a referendum held on September 21, 1991, Armenia's voters approved a declaration of independence from the USSR. Two months later the new republic became a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh, the Armenian enclave there, escalated into open warfare, as the Armenian army invaded and occupied the disputed territory in 1992.

See also Armenia (country).