VII.

Stoicism

The philosophy of Stoicism developed about 300 bc, during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. In Greece the principal Stoic philosophers were Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus of Soli. In Rome, Stoicism proved to be the most popular of the Greek philosophies, and Cicero was among the famous Romans who came under its influence. Its principal figures during the Roman period were the Greek philosopher Epictetus and the Roman emperor and philosopher Marcus Aurelius. According to the Stoics, nature is orderly and rational, and only a life led in harmony with nature can be good. The Stoic philosophers, however, agreed also that because life is influenced by material circumstances one should try to be as independent of such circumstances as possible. The practice of certain cardinal virtues, such as practical wisdom, courage, discretion, and justice, enables one to achieve independence in the spirit of the Stoic motto “Endure and renounce.” Hence, the word stoic has come to mean fortitude in the face of hardship.