II.

Physical Geography

Nunavut is the largest political unit in Canada and constitutes one-fifth of Canada’s total landmass. This large area has a rectangular shape that extends northward to about latitude 84° north. Nunavut stretches 2,572 km (1,598 mi) from north to south and 2,532 km (1,573 mi) from east to west. The Belcher Islands in Hudson Bay are the most southerly islands in Nunavut. Boothia Peninsula, which extends almost to the 75th parallel, marks the most northerly part of Nunavut’s mainland. The northernmost portion of land in Nunavut, and in Canada, is at the northern tip of Ellesmere Island.

As Canada’s most northern territory, Nunavut includes both an Arctic mainland and Arctic islands in the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay. The Arctic mainland is shaped like a triangle and includes 900,000 sq km (350,000 sq mi). It extends from the southern edge of the tundra to the shores of the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay.

Within the Arctic Ocean, there are many islands that are collectively known as the Arctic Archipelago, which covers about 1 million sq km (420,000 sq mi). Several of these treeless islands are among the largest in Canada; Baffin Island is the largest island in Canada and the fifth largest island in the world. Other large islands in the Arctic Archipelago are Ellesmere, Devon, and Axel Heiberg.

The region’s topography ranges from coastal plains to rugged mountains. Elevations within the territory rise from sea level to 2,616 m (8,583 ft) at Barbeau Peak on Ellesmere Island. Ice caps on Baffin, Devon, and Ellesmere islands are remnants of the last Ice Age, when the Wisconsin Ice Sheet covered the Nunavut area. Glaciers also carved deep fjords along the coasts of Ellesmere Island.

Because most of Nunavut lies beyond the Arctic Circle, the region is characterized by long nights during the winter and long days during the summer. This phenomenon is most pronounced north of the Arctic Circle, where the sun remains above the horizon for 24 hours on the summer solstice (usually June 21 or 22) and never rises above the horizon on the winter solstice (usually December 21 or 22). The number of days that the sun stays above (or below) the horizon increases in higher latitudes until, at the North Pole, the sun doesn’t set for six months and doesn’t rise for the other six months.

A.

Permafrost

Permafrost is one reason why Nunavut has a cold environment. Found everywhere in Nunavut, permafrost is permanently frozen ground that maintains a temperature at or below the freezing point for at least two years. Permafrost developed long ago when an extremely cold climate caused the ground to freeze to great depths. During the summer, a thin layer of the surface known as the active layer may thaw, although the temperature of the ground beneath the active layer remains below freezing. Permafrost sometimes reaches depths of more than 500 meters (1,600 feet). Some scientists believe that global temperatures are increasing, resulting in warmer and longer summers. Such warming of Earth will increase the depth of the active layer and reduce the geographic extent of permafrost, perhaps even causing it to disappear. Construction in permafrost areas necessitates special precautions to avoid disturbing the frozen ground. Houses and buildings, for instance, are often built on piles so that an air space exists between the ground and the building, thus preventing warm air from reaching the ground.

B.

Natural Regions

The major physiographic regions in Nunavut are the Canadian Shield and the Arctic Lands. The Canadian Shield, which extends across northeastern Canada, was formed 2.5 billion years ago as Earth’s crust solidified from a molten, or liquid, state. Scientists place the rocks that formed in this process in the oldest geological time period, known as Precambrian time. This ancient rock mass is exposed at the Earth’s surface. In most places, the Canadian Shield consists of rugged, rolling terrain. It reaches its highest elevations along the coastal fjords of Baffin Island.

The Arctic Lands is a complex geological area that is centered on the Arctic Ocean. It includes coastal plains, plateaus, and mountains. Coastal plains and plateaus are found in the western Northwest Territories section of the Arctic Lands, such as on Victoria Island, which is mostly a large, flat plateau. In striking contrast to these relatively gentle landscapes, the eastern Nunavut section of the Arctic Lands is dominated by a jagged chain of ice-covered mountains. The mountains on Ellesmere Island are shrouded in a layer of ice 2,000 m (6,500 ft) thick. The highest elevation in the Arctic Lands is at the summit of Barbeau Peak.

Glaciation has affected both physiographic regions. During the last ice age, known as the Wisconsin Ice Age, a thick sheet of ice covered Nunavut. As this ice sheet expanded 25,000 years ago, it slowly moved over the land, scraping and scratching the surface. By 18,000 years ago, the Wisconsin Ice Sheet covering Nunavut was 3 to 4 km (1 to 3 mi) thick. About 15,000 years ago, Earth’s climate began to warm and the southern edge of this huge ice sheet began to melt and retreat. By 6,000 years ago, Nunavut was free of ice cover except for a few ice caps in the Arctic Archipelago. The major remnants of this great ice sheet are found on Baffin, Devon, and Ellesmere islands. During the melting of the ice sheet, material contained in the ice was deposited on the ground; such deposits are known as glacial drift.

C.

Rivers and Lakes

The Back and Coppermine rivers flow northward across the mainland of Nunavut and empty into the Arctic Ocean, while the waters of the Thelon and Kazan rivers travel eastward, discharging into Hudson Bay. The courses of the Thelon and Kazan rivers stretch across 904 km (562 mi) and 732 km (455 mi), respectively, while the Back and Coppermine rivers cover 974 km (605 mi) and 845 km (525 mi), respectively.

The major lakes on the mainland are Dubawnt Lake, Baker Lake, and Yathkyed Lake. The largest lakes in the Arctic Lands are located on Baffin Island and include Nettilling Lake and Amadjuak Lake.

D.

Coastline

Nunavut has an extensive coastline of 45,000 km (28,000 mi) that runs along the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and Hudson Bay. The territory’s islands situated in the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay have a total coastline of 35,000 km (22,000 mi); its mainland has a coastline of 10,000 km (6,000 mi).

Hudson Bay, the eastern border of Nunavut’s mainland, is an immense inland sea that covers 1,230,000 sq km (475,000 sq mi). It is also quite shallow, with an average depth of only 100 m (330 ft). Hudson Strait connects Hudson Bay to the Atlantic Ocean. Islands in Hudson Bay include Southampton Island and Coats Island.

Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, extensions of the North Atlantic Ocean, separate Nunavut from Greenland. Lancaster Sound, between Baffin and Devon islands, marks the entrance to the Arctic Ocean and the beginning of the Northwest Passage. The coastline of the Arctic Ocean extends from just east of the Beaufort Sea to the Gulf of Boothia, which separates the mainland from the northern part of Baffin Island.

E.

Climate

The arctic climate prevails in Nunavut. Overall, the arctic climate is the coldest of all climates; its summers are the coolest on Earth, and its winters are extremely cold. The arctic climate has an extremely short summer that can be measured in days rather than weeks or months. While the occasional summer day may reach temperatures of 20°C (68°F) or higher, freezing temperatures occur in July and August. The average daily temperature in those months is below 10°C (50°F).

The arctic climate is also noted for its long, cold winter, when temperatures of -40°C (-40°F) or colder occur. The coldest temperature ever recorded at Alert, Canada’s northernmost center in the Arctic, is -50°C (-58°F). Winter weather is characterized by clear skies, although arctic storms do occur and blizzards frequently punctuate the winter weather. Arctic blizzards are fierce snowstorms with intensely cold and strong winds. During the arctic winters, “whiteout” weather conditions often occur, during which a person’s depth perception is greatly impaired. Under these weather conditions, pilots find it extremely difficult to land aircraft.

F.

Plants and Animals

Nunavut’s arctic climate limits the possibilities for both plants and animals, forcing them to adapt to the cold environment. The short, cool summer prevents normal tree growth but does allow tundra vegetation to grow. Tundra vegetation consists of dwarf shrubs, sedges, heath, and lichens (a form of primitive plant), and is widespread over mainland Nunavut and Baffin Island.

The tundra vegetation is a source of food for grazing animals, or herbivores, such as the caribou, musk-ox, lemming, arctic ground squirrel, and arctic hare. Carnivorous animals, such as the grizzly bear, arctic fox, and wolf, feed on herbivores. Grizzly bears eat a variety of plants and fish, as well as large and small animals, from caribou to ground squirrels. Wolves follow the large caribou herds that graze on the lush tundra vegetation during the summer and on the shrubs, grasses, and lichens found in the forests south of Nunavut in the winter.

Farther north, where summer conditions are too cold for even tundra vegetation to survive, the land gives way to a polar desert where only lichens can survive. Such barren lands are found only in high latitudes (above 70° north) and are associated with the extremely cold and dry climate of the polar desert. Precipitation in the polar desert is often less than 100 mm (4 in) per year and occurs mostly in the summer. Few animals exist in this barren landscape.

The arctic marine environment in the oceans surrounding Nunavut provides homes for sea mammals such as seals, narwhals, and walrus. Bowhead whales and the smaller beluga whales frequent the Arctic waters. In the winter, polar bears make use of the land-fast ice (floating ice attached to the land) to hunt seals.

G.

Resources

Although Nunavut has neither arable land nor commercial forest, it is often thought of as a treasure trove of resources waiting for development. Nunavut’s natural wealth lies in its minerals and petroleum deposits. Minerals are found in the Canadian Shield, and oil and gas deposits exist in the Arctic Lands. However, the cost of developing and marketing these resources is high.

H.

Conservation

Nunavut’s national parks and game sanctuaries are part of the territory’s efforts to conserve the arctic wilderness. In 1999 there were two national parks in Nunavut: Auyuittuq and Ellesmere Island parks. Three more are proposed: Northern Baffin Island, Northern Bathurst Island, and Wager Bay parks.

With the signing of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act in 1993 and the establishment of the Nunavut government in 1999, the management of Nunavut’s environment and wildlife is co-managed with the federal government. Co-management aims to balance aboriginal and Western values concerning the environment and wildlife. Within this co-management arrangement, conservation focuses not only on using resources wisely and protecting the environment, but also on the hunting rights of the aboriginal peoples.

The complexity of co-management is evident in the Thelon Wildlife Sanctuary. The federal government established the sanctuary in 1927 in the Northwest Territories as a wilderness preserve and thus prohibited hunting. When the Northwest Territories was divided, the Thelon Wildlife Sanctuary was split between Nunavut and the Northwest Territories. The Inuit formed a committee to prepare a management plan for Nunavut’s portion of the sanctuary, and the Dene, a group native to the Northwest Territories, established a committee to manage their portion of the sanctuary. Both committees favor hunting by their peoples, but environmental groups strongly oppose hunting in the sanctuary.

In addition to Thelon, Nunavut has several animal preserves and sanctuaries, including an important nesting ground for geese at the Queen Maud Gulf Bird Sanctuary. Other preserves are the Bylot Island Bird Sanctuary, two bird sanctuaries on Southampton Island, and two game sanctuaries on Baffin Island.

Pollution is a problem in Nunavut and takes three forms: local, global, and relic. Local pollution occurring around settlements often contaminates the drinking water. Global air and ocean circulation systems bring pollution to the Arctic from distant industrial centers. Finally, relic pollution from toxic materials dumped in the ground years ago causes health problems. The worst sites of relic pollution are associated with abandoned United States military bases and Distant Early Warning (DEW) radar sites (including Iqaluit). Highly toxic materials were dumped near these sites, and efforts are under way to remove these toxic wastes.