IV.

History

The first mines were actually tunnels dug, or mined, underneath enemy fortifications. Armies had used tunneling for centuries as a method of warfare, but as soon as gunpowder was introduced, underground explosions followed. Famous early mine explosions include the 1864 Union fiasco at Petersburg, VA during the American Civil War. The Union army exploded an underground mine to destroy Confederate defenses, but the Union’s surprise was followed by an unorganized troop advance, giving the Confederates time to respond to the attack and forcing the Union to lay siege to the city. Mines were also important in the 1917 Allied success at Messines Ridge in Belgium during World War I. Nineteen underground mines exploded under German positions, and Allied forces were able to capture the ridge in less than a day.

The first attempts to use naval mines occurred during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Early mines were crude, and navies used them primarily for harbor defense. During the American Civil War, mines sank or damaged 36 ships. During World War I, mine technology advanced. Navies on all sides began to use naval mines extensively, in both harbors and coastal waters. The German U-boat submarine captains learned to fear the British Dover Barrage minefield after it was laid off the coast of England in 1917 to block the English Channel. The larger North Sea Barrage was less notably successful.

Armies first used small land mines extensively in World War II. German forces were particularly efficient in laying minefields while in retreat. Advancing armies faced with minefields were forced to slow their advances or choose alternate routes. The Allies used naval mines to deter German U-boat operations in the Atlantic Ocean and Japanese naval movements in the Pacific Ocean during the war. Allied forces used aircraft to lay 21,000 mines, which sunk or damaged more than 600 ships off Japan.

Since World War II (1939-1945), many armies and paramilitary forces have planted millions of mines in hundreds of conflicts. Some were laid as barriers along borders such as the one dividing North and South Korea, but most land mines exist in countries where fighting has ended. Countries with large numbers of land mines from previous conflicts include Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Afghanistan, Iraq, Angola, and Egypt. Public awareness regarding land mine use has been raised by the efforts of several activists, including Jody Williams and the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, who shared the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize for their work. A land-mine treaty was signed in Ottawa, Canada, in December 1997 by over 120 nations. The agreement bans or restricts the manufacture, export, and use of antipersonnel land mines. The United States did not sign the agreement because of language that would prohibit the use of land mines on the Korean border, but it has agreed to the treaty in principle. Other major countries that did not sign include Russia and China. See also Arms Control.