II.

Physical Geography

New York has an area of 141,299 sq km (54,556 sq mi), including 4,908 sq km (1,895 sq mi) of inland water, 2,541 sq km (981 sq mi) of coastal water, and 10,329 sq km (3,988 sq mi) of that portion of the Great Lakes over which it has jurisdiction. Among the states it ranks 27th in size. The greatest distance within the state, exclusive of the islands, is 480 km (300 mi) from north to south, while from east to west it measures 510 km (315 mi). The average elevation is 300 m (1,000 ft). The principal islands belonging to the state are Manhattan Island, which forms the core of New York City; Staten Island, also a borough of New York City; and Long Island, which extends 190 km (118 mi) east from the southern tip of the state. On its western end, Long Island contains two more boroughs of New York City, Brooklyn and Queens.

A.

Natural Regions

New York’s roughly triangular area encloses eight different natural regions, or physiographic provinces, of the United States. These provinces are: the Atlantic Coastal Plain, a subdivision of the Coastal Plain; the New England Upland province, the Piedmont Plateau, the Ridge and Valley province, the Appalachian Plateaus, the Adirondack province, and the St. Lawrence Valley province, all subdivisions of the Appalachian Region; and the Central Lowland, a sub-division of the Interior Plains.

The Coastal Plain of New York is part of a long, low coastal band that stretches from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, to Mexico. In New York state it is seen chiefly in Long Island and Staten Island. These islands belong to the embayed section of the plain that is indented with many bays and estuaries because of the partial submergence of the land. Both islands were built up by a glacier, which, as it melted and retreated, left deposits called moraine. Long Island received two separate deposits of moraine, running almost its entire length. Over most of Long Island the two deposits are virtually indistinguishable from each other. The eastern tip of Long Island, however, resembles a fishtail on the map, because at this point the two moraines are separated by water. Parts of the island are almost pure sand, supporting only scrub pines and oaks.

The New England Upland province is composed of moderately rough, rolling land with smoothly rounded hilltops. The bedrock is very old metamorphic rock, although some valleys are underlain with limestone. New York City is the point where the New England province meets the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Manhattan belongs to the Seaboard Lowland section of the New England province, and the strength of the bedrock there has permitted the construction of the city’s numerous skyscrapers. A prong of the Seaboard Lowland crosses the Hudson River, forming the Hudson Highlands near West Point. A well-known feature of this highland area is Storm King, a peak 413 m (1,355 ft) above sea level. The Taconic section of the New England province, being mainly a mountainous section, is higher than the Seaboard Lowland. The Taconic section is seen in Massachusetts and Vermont, as well as in New York state, where it is represented by a thin strip of highlands to the east of the Hudson River called the Taconic Range.

Only the northern tip of the Piedmont Plateau, called the northern Piedmont lowland, extends into New York State, mainly in Rockland County. Although basically a lowland area, one of the distinctive features there is the Palisades, the rocky cliffs that rise abruptly from the Hudson’s western shore. They were formed by molten basalt lava that was pushed up through the earth’s crust to form a tall rocky wall extending for some distance along the New Jersey-New York shore.

The Ridge and Valley province, which is more extensive in Pennsylvania and the Southern states, is confined to a relatively narrow valley in New York. This area, the northern part of which is called the Hudson Valley section, forms the Hudson River corridor. The valley is underlain by soft limestone, but much of the surface materials are sands, clays, and loams deposited as a result of glacial action. The general appearance of the valley is rural, and only in the southern part of this region is there any evidence of the folded mountainous terrain that is so characteristic of the Ridge and Valley province elsewhere.

The Appalachian Plateaus is a large natural region lying west of the Hudson lowlands and south of the Mohawk River valley and the Lake Ontario-Lake Erie plains. The plateau is underlain with nearly horizontal rock strata, and all of it was covered by a glacier as recently as 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Ice and the force of rivers have dissected or cut into the bedrock, giving the whole region a rugged, hilly aspect. The plateau is highest in the eastern part of the state, where it forms the Catskill Mountains. The northeastern side of the Catskills near Albany is marked by a series of steep limestone escarpments called The Helderbergs. The average elevation of the hills in the Catskill region is 900 m (3,000 ft), but westward elevations are generally lower. Slide Mountain, in the Catskills, reaches an elevation of 1,281 m (4,204 ft). The local relief in both the Catskills and the western portion of the plateau amounts to 150 m (500 ft) or more from the hilltops to the bottom of rivers that have cut wide valleys.

The section of the Appalachian Plateaus south of the Ontario Lake Plain and west of the Catskills is sometimes called the glaciated Allegheny Plateau. This area has elevations of from 370 to 610 m (1,200 to 2,000 ft), although the land is much lower around the Finger Lakes, in the north of the section. Glaciers carved these long narrow lakes from the soft limestones and shales that prevail in the area. The Finger Lakes are edged by steep valley walls over which tributary streams have created some spectacular waterfalls. Near the southern end of Cayuga Lake is the highest continuous waterfall east of the Rocky Mountains, Taughannock Falls, which, at 66 m (215 ft), is even higher than Niagara Falls.

Another distinct region of the Appalachian Plateaus is the Mohawk section, encompassing the Mohawk River valley. It separates the rest of the Appalachian Plateaus from the Adirondack Mountains to the north. The Mohawk River valley extends eastward from Rome to the Hudson River valley, permitting easy passage between the Hudson River and Lake Ontario. The Black River valley, north of Utica, forms a northwestern continuation of the Mohawk section. Both valleys are important dairy regions developed on excellent lands for pasture and growing hay.

The Adirondack province consists of a large highland area occupying 26,000 sq km (10,000 sq mi) in the northeastern quarter of the state. The region is domelike in shape, with the higher elevations toward the east. The western Adirondack province is more a rugged hill region and not truly mountainous. Geologically, this area is related to the Laurentian Upland, or Canadian Shield, which lies north of the St. Lawrence River, for it is composed of the same very old igneous rocks, principally granite and anorthosite in the high peaks section. The Adirondacks contain many of the higher peaks of the eastern United States, including Mount Marcy, at 1,629 m (5,344 ft), the highest point in the state. This region is heavily forested, and its geologic structure has created wild and rugged scenery, with many waterfalls and spectacular vistas.

The Adirondack Mountains descend to the St. Lawrence River valley on the north and are bordered on the east by the lowlands around Lake Champlain. The two lowlands are connected by the Valley of the Richelieu River. This area is known as the St. Lawrence Valley province. The St. Lawrence River outlines the northwestern boundary of the state where it passes across the granitic rock of the Laurentian Upland. The Frontenac axis, the same geologic rock structure that connects the Canadian Shield and the Adirondacks, is seen as the Thousand Islands, which lie in the St. Lawrence River where it leaves Lake Ontario.

South of Lake Ontario and east of Lake Erie is a single connected plain extending inland for about 8 km (about 5 mi) to more than 60 km (40 mi). It is called the Eastern Lake section of the Central Lowland. Along most of the Lake Erie shore the plain is narrow, but it widens as it approaches Buffalo. An interesting feature is the large number of drumlins between Syracuse and Rochester. Drumlins are elongated hills or ridges composed of glacial debris. This drumlin formation is one of the best known in the United States. For the visitor, however, Niagara Falls is the region’s most distinctive feature.

B.

Rivers and Lakes

The largest rivers in the state of New York are the St. Lawrence, Hudson, Mohawk, Genesee, Susquehanna, Allegheny, and Delaware rivers. The Hudson River, New York’s largest river, rises in Lake Tear of the Clouds, in the southeastern Adirondacks. North of Troy the Hudson is a relatively narrow river, but from Troy south to New York City it widens. The Hudson River, with its major tributary, the Mohawk River, has played a significant role in the development of the state and the nation. The rivers provided an important lowland route through the Appalachians.

The western Catskill Mountains are drained by the Delaware River, which cuts through the southern portion of the mountains and separates them from the Pocono Mountains of Pennsylvania. The Susquehanna River rises in Otsego Lake northeast of Binghamton and enters the Atlantic through the Chesapeake Bay. The Genesee River flows almost due north, rising near the southern boundary of New York state and emptying into Lake Ontario. There are falls along its course, and those near Rochester have been harnessed to provide power for the city. The Allegheny River, flowing southward to Pittsburgh, makes only a small loop into western New York from Pennsylvania. The shortest but perhaps one of the most famous rivers in the state of New York is the Niagara River. Measuring 56 km (35 mi), it crosses an escarpment, forming the Niagara Falls. These falls constitute not only a valuable scenic and tourist attraction but are a great source of hydroelectric power. The St. Lawrence River, which rises in Lake Ontario, forms New York state’s boundary with eastern Ontario. In this stretch lie the Thousand Islands and, farther east, the International Rapids section. The St. Lawrence is a vital transportation artery and a major source of hydroelectric power.

New York’s natural lakes number in the thousands. Two of the Great Lakes—Lake Erie and Lake Ontario—lie along the state’s western border. The largest lake lying wholly within the state is Oneida Lake, covering 210 sq km (80 sq mi) and located northeast of Syracuse. Lake Champlain, a much larger and deeper lake, forms part of the boundary between New York and Vermont. Just south of Lake Champlain is Lake George. Lake Placid, Saranac Lake, Tupper Lake, and many others on the northern rim of the Adirondacks are popular resorts. Along the northern edge of the Appalachian Plateaus are the well-known Finger Lakes, the largest of which are Cayuga Lake and Seneca Lake. Also of glacial origin in the western portion of the state is Chautauqua Lake, well known as the birthplace of the Chautauqua Institution, where summer lectures and concerts are held. Among the largest reservoirs in New York are Great Sacandaga Lake and Allegheny, Ashokan, Pepacton, and Cannonsville reservoirs.

Nineteen reservoirs, principally in the Catskill Mountains, provide pure, untreated water to New York City and its 8 million people. As New York City’s only source of fresh water, protection of these reservoirs from agricultural, industrial, and residential pollution is extremely important to the city’s government. Because of land use controls imposed by the city, the reservoir system is also an important political issue for residents of the Catskill region. Although most of the upstate reservoirs are used for urban water supplies, some serve flood control duties.

C.

Climate

The climate of New York is generally humid. Variations in terrain, elevation, and exposure to bodies of water cause variations in climate. The coastal area has higher temperatures, less frost, less cloudiness, and fewer storms. Upstate lowlands are subject to considerable extremes in temperature, especially during winter when cold air from Canada and the interior invade the state. In summer, warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and southeastern United States may bring rains, although cloudless skies generally prevail. Average January temperatures range from -9°C (16°F) in the Adirondacks to 1°C (33°F) in New York City. The July average is 19°C (66°F) in the Adirondacks and 25°C (77°F) in New York City.

The Great Lakes, the Finger Lakes, and the Atlantic Ocean are important modifiers of temperature. Whereas the Adirondacks have an average growing season, or period without killing frosts, of only 100 days a year, the Finger Lakes area, the Great Lakes shores, and the Hudson Valley have a much greater number of frost-free days. New York City and most of Long Island have a growing season of more than 200 days.

Most of the state normally has 1,000 mm (40 in) of rain annually. Precipitation is quite evenly distributed throughout the year, with sufficient amounts of rain during the growing season to support agriculture. There are, however, occasional dry periods. The wettest areas are the southern slopes of the Adirondacks and the Black River valley, where the normal average precipitation exceeds 1,320 mm (52 in) per year. The driest areas are found in northern and western areas, along Lake Champlain, the St. Lawrence River, and Lake Ontario. The plains of the Eastern Lake section from Buffalo east to the Adirondacks frequently are subjected to blizzard-like storms, and a single storm may pile up more than 1 m (3 ft) of snow. The Tug Hill upland south of Watertown and directly east of Lake Ontario receives the largest annual snowfall. More than 8,900 mm (350 in) of snowfall has been recorded there in a single winter.

D.

Soils

The soils in the state fall generally into the groups classified as spodosols. They are acid in reaction and generally light in both color and texture. They are not superior agricultural soils, but because of the proximity of New York’s agricultural areas to its heavily populated consuming centers, many of the better soils are intensively cultivated. The soils over much of the Appalachian Plateaus are gray-brown soils, which are frequently very thin. However, the valleys of the plateau have developed more fertile soils, both on glacial till and on the alluvium washed down from the higher region. The soils of the Adirondacks are generally called orthents, which are very thin stony soils that have developed on the glacial debris of the area. These soils are little used for agriculture. The soils on the plains of the Eastern Lake section have developed on the deposits laid down in glacial lakes. These soils are heavier and of better quality than the other soils of the state.

E.

Plant Life

Almost all of New York was once forested. Forests now cover 61 percent of the state’s land area, most of which is second-growth timber. Some small stands of virgin forest lands are found in the Catskills and the Adirondacks. The forests of the state are a rich mixture of deciduous and coniferous species, the more common trees being white pine, spruce, and hemlock, among the softwoods, and maple, beech, yellow birch, hickory, and several species of oak, among the hardwoods.

About 1,900 species of plants are native to New York. Many species of flowering plants can be found on the dry forest floors, including Dutchman’s breeches, gentians, violets, bellflowers, bellworts, Soloman’s-seal, hapaticas, trillium, and trout lily (yellow adder’s tongue). Common native field flowers are the goldenrod, Michaelmas, daisy, thistle, aster and Joe-Pye-weed. In wetter areas, cattails, mayapples, Jack-in-the-pulpit, impatiens, and marsh marigolds (cowslips) are common. Numerous native species of ferns and grass-like sedges are also found.

F.

Animal Life

Almost all the mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish that are common in the northeastern United States are found in New York. Native mammals include skunk, raccoon, striped gray squirrel, red and gray fox, Virginia opossum, eastern chipmunk, eastern cottontail, varieties of hare, woodchuck, three species of weasel, mink, and American (or pine) marten.

Eastern coyote, bobcat, river otter, beaver, muskrat, and porcupine are found in many parts of the state, while small rodents, such as mice and voles, and insectivores, such as the shrew and mole, are abundant. Northern and southern flying squirrel are residents of the state, as are eight species of bat. The black bear is still found in forested and upland areas, and moose are common in the north, while the white-tailed deer appears everywhere in the state except for the city boroughs. The marine waters around New York City and Long Island are the habitat of whales, several species of dolphins, and five species of seals.

Amphibians include 18 species of salamander, as well as frogs and toads. Of the reptiles found in the state, there are 3 species of lizards, 14 species of freshwater turtles, 5 species of sea turtles, and 14 species of harmless snakes. Of the venomous the timber rattlesnake is a threatened species and is fully protected under New York’s Environmental Conservation Law. The eastern massasauga rattlesnake, sometimes erroneously called the “pygmy,” is in even greater danger of extinction and is listed as an endangered species. The copperhead of southeastern New York is an unprotected snake, and is less venomous than the other two.

Birdlife is abundant, and game birds of northeastern North America that migrate through New York or reside in the state are the ruffed grouse, wild turkey, mallard and many other species of ducks, and Canada and snow geese. Songbirds that rely on forested areas for habitat are doing well in the state, while the number of meadow birds is declining. The American robin, ruby-throated hummingbird, mourning dove, killdeer, chipping sparrow, yellow warbler, blue jay, and house wren are found in most areas in summer. The eastern bluebird, the state’s official bird, is commonly seen once again.

By the mid-1960s in New York there were no longer any successfully breeding pairs of the American bald eagle, a native of the state. Their demise was due largely to habitat loss and to the pesticide DDT, which was banned in 1972. The New York State Bald Eagle Restoration Project, begun in 1976, has led to the successful reintroduction of the American bald eagle to the state. The peregrine falcon has found a near perfect home among the skyscrapers and high bridges of New York City, with food provided by the numerous pigeons, blue jays, and other birds of the city. There is found 60 percent of the state’s breeding population, and perhaps the world’s highest urban concentration of this spectacular bird of prey.

G.

Conservation

The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, established in 1970, unites the natural resource protection functions of the former Conservation Department and the environmental quality tasks formerly performed by the Department of Health. Since it was formed, the DEC’s activities have multiplied as new laws and programs were developed to solve emerging environmental problems. As a result, New York state residents of today enjoy the benefits of cleaner air and water, thriving wildlife and forests, accessible recreation, and farsighted waste management policies.

New York was one of a number of states facing acute problems of pollution of its rivers and of the Great Lakes. Also pressing, particularly for the urban area around New York City, was the need to preserve land and water for recreational purposes and scenic enjoyment in the face of demands by an ever-growing population for more housing and commercial structures. To this end New York uses modern techniques to manage fish and wildlife resources and state lands. It uses permits to control pollution of air and water, transport and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes, pesticide use, mining, and mined-land reclamation. Environmental remediation programs provide help to local governments in construction of wastewater treatment plants as well as overseeing the cleanup of inactive hazardous waste disposal sites.

In 2006 New York had 86 hazardous waste sites on a national priority list for cleanup due to their severity or proximity to people. The densest concentration of such sites is associated with the industrialized area in Erie and Niagara counties between Buffalo and Niagara Falls-Lewiston. Two other concentrations of hazardous-waste sites are north of Syracuse on Onondaga Lake, and in the vicinity of New York City, Long Island, and Westchester, Dutchess, and Orange counties. Progress was being made in efforts to reduce pollution; in the period 1995–2000 the amount of toxic chemicals discharged into the environment was reduced by 32 percent.