IV.

The Confucian Tradition

Confucius described himself as a “transmitter and not an innovator,” because he believed that all his teachings were nothing more than the way of the ancient sages. However, he was more original than he realized, and he started one of the great intellectual traditions. This tradition is known in China as the rujia (ju-chia, or “School of the Scholars”) but is called Confucianism in the West. Confucians all try to follow the Way of Confucius as they understand it, but they often disagree sharply over what this way is. For example, Confucius said almost nothing about human nature, but his later followers debated whether human nature was good, as Mencius argued in the 4th century bc, or bad, as Xunzi (Hsün-tzu) claimed in the 3rd century bc.

Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi), a philosopher who lived in the 12th century ad, influenced thinking on Confucius for centuries. His views were adopted by the government and became the official state orthodoxy. Zhu Xi identified the Sishu (Four Books) as the core of Confucian philosophy. They comprised the Analects, the Mencius (Book of Mencius) by a follower of Confucius, the Greater Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. The latter two presumably contain Confucius’s philosophical utterances, systematically arranged and with commentaries by his disciples. Zhu Xi’s commentaries on these works interpreted them in the light of one another and in terms of a philosophical system that was influenced by Zen Buddhism. This interpretation continues to influence how many people understand Confucius even today.

During China’s Cultural Revolution, from 1966 to 1976, Confucius was condemned by the Communist government as an element of China’s “feudal” past. However, economic and social changes in China since the 1980s have led to renewed interest in and respect for Confucius and Confucianism.

From a modern perspective, Confucius’s worldview has certain limitations. He was ignorant of cultural diversity; he accepted the sexism of his society; he shows no interest in natural science or technology; his political philosophy is undemocratic; and he gives insufficient stress to social change. However, Confucius will no doubt continue to inspire people across the world with his vision of social harmony, his insight into human virtue, and his techniques for cultivating ethical individuals.