III.

Confucius’s Teachings

Confucius shared a belief, common in his time, that China had in the past enjoyed almost utopian periods of peace and prosperity under the rule of “sage kings.” Confucius held that these wise kings possessed de (te), meaning “virtue” or a sort of charisma that comes from being a good person and that makes others want to follow one. Consequently, the sage kings were able to govern primarily through the power of setting a good ethical example, rather than through military force or criminal penalties.

According to Confucius a good person has ren (or jen), translated as “humaneness” or “benevolence,” which is the summation of all other virtues. For example, a person with ren will always do what is appropriate for his social role. This yi (i, or “righteousness”) involves being obedient to one’s ruler and one’s parents. Obedience is not blind, however. Confucius stresses that we must encourage our superiors to act ethically and resign our position if the ruler persists in unethical behavior. A ren person does what is right regardless of the danger to himself or herself and regardless of the hardship this requires. This person also is faithful in his words: honest, but not glib. Finally, all virtues have to be applied in a flexible manner that shows an appreciation of specific circumstances and the people in them.

Confucius discouraged his students from worrying about the afterlife. Instead, he encouraged them to live in harmony and to help other people through government service, teaching, or just being a good family member. Confucius thought that there was great joy to be found in everyday family life, participating in communal activities, enjoying music, and spending time with one’s friends.

Confucius stressed three institutions that both express and help cultivate the virtues: rituals, education, and the family. Rituals can include everything from funeral ceremonies to sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors to the proper way to dress, eat dinner, or treat a guest. Confucius believed that performing rituals with a spirit of reverence was not only a sign of virtue, but could also help cultivate the virtues in oneself. He thought that there was only one correct set of rituals: those handed down by the sage kings of the past. Failing to perform the correct rituals, or performing them without proper reverence, was both a cause and a symptom of bad character and social decay.

In educating his disciples Confucius stressed the Shijing (Shih ching, “Book of Songs”), an anthology of poems from a variety of sources that was already old and revered by his era. He encouraged his disciples to find metaphorical meanings with ethical significance in the poems. For example, a poem that describes a team of horses as “never deviating” from their path should be read as a metaphor for following the way of the sage kings. Confucius was a demanding teacher who expected his students to think carefully about what he taught them and to apply it in their own lives.

Confucius’s commitment to the family is revealed in a famous anecdote in which a ruler brags to Confucius about how someone in his state is so upright that he had turned in his own father for being a thief. Confucius suggests that he prefers the standard in his own state, where fathers and sons protect each other. One of the reasons that the family is so important, according to Confucius, is that we first learn to love and respect others in our family. This respect becomes the basis of virtue in later life.