II.

Confucius’s Life

Much about the life of Confucius is uncertain. He was born in the state of Lu, in what is now Shandong (Shantung) province, during the second half of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1045?-256 bc). China was then divided into a number of states. Although these states were under the authority of a single Zhou king, they functioned quite independently and often engaged in disastrous wars.

Confucius’s father apparently died when Confucius was young. His death left the family in poverty, so that Confucius had to work at menial tasks as a youth to help support the family. Somehow, he managed to obtain an education. As an adult he impressed others with his learning and good character, so that he began to acquire students and disciples. Confucius’s experiences growing up may have contributed to his willingness to instruct any student, regardless of wealth or social class, and to judge others on their actual character, rather than on their social standing.

Confucius was eventually appointed magistrate of justice in Lu. He resigned, apparently in protest over government corruption. After his resignation Confucius spent the next few years traveling through various states in China, hoping to find a ruler who would put his philosophy into practice. During his travels he came close to starvation at one point and was almost murdered on another occasion. Failing to find the ruler he was looking for, Confucius returned to Lu. He was given only a minor position in government, but several of his disciples attained high office in Lu and elsewhere.

After his death Confucius’s disciples collected his sayings in a work now known as the Lunyu (Lun-yü, Analects), a book in 20 sections. Scholars generally agree that the last 5 sections were composed long after the time of Confucius’s immediate disciples. There is intense disagreement over how much of the first 15 sections can reliably be attributed to Confucius or his students.