I.

Introduction

Private Education in the United States, programs of instruction in the United States that are created, controlled, operated, and principally financed by private individuals and groups rather than by governments. About 11 percent of American elementary and secondary school (high school) students attend private schools, and 24 percent of all elementary and secondary schools in the United States are private. Private education is also offered at many American preschools as well as at many colleges, universities, and technical institutes.

Unlike public elementary and secondary schools, which are free, nearly all private schools charge some form of tuition. The amount of private school tuition varies widely according to the type of school and the level of education offered. Although the cost of private education is beyond the reach of many American families, most private schools offer some form of financial aid to low-income applicants. In addition to revenue generated by tuition payments, private schools are supported mainly by funds from other private sources, such as religious organizations, endowments, grants, and charitable donations.

This article focuses on American private education at the elementary and secondary levels. For information about private higher education in the United States, see Colleges and Universities: Independent Colleges and Universities.

II.

Types of Private Schools

Private schools in the United States may be broadly classified as either religious or nonsectarian (nonreligious) institutions. The most common types of religious schools in the United States are supported by various branches of the Catholic Church. Some private schools are known as boarding schools because they offer lodging to students in addition to academic instruction. Private schools that do not offer lodging are often called day schools. Private schools that focus on academic preparation for college are sometimes called preparatory schools or prep schools. Both religious and nonsectarian private schools may feature other distinguishing characteristics, such as single-sex enrollment or residential facilities.

The term independent school refers to any private school that is independently governed by a board of trustees, rather than by a church or religious organization. Independent schools may have a religious or nonsectarian orientation. They are financed primarily by tuition, fees, charitable contributions, and income from investments, rather than by tax or church funds. The main organization representing independent schools in the United States is the National Association of Independent Schools.

A.

Religious Schools

Approximately 85 percent of all private school students attend schools affiliated with religious organizations, and about 50 percent of all private school students attend Catholic schools. However, private religious schools in the United States encompass a remarkable diversity of religious affiliations, educational objectives, and curriculums. Some religiously affiliated schools operate under the principle that religious instruction should be a key element in the daily education of children. Other schools attempt to provide some religious content but emphasize traditional academics. Many private religious schools primarily strive to offer an alternative to the relatively secular (nonreligious) spirit of public schools.

A.1.

Catholic Schools

The majority of Catholic schools are parochial schools, which are supported and controlled by individual parishes (local administrative units of the Roman Catholic Church). Most Catholic parochial schools provide only elementary level instruction. Aside from Catholic parochial schools, entire systems of schools are operated by Catholic dioceses (large districts under the jurisdiction of a bishop). These school systems are generally known as diocesan schools. The organization of these institutions often has features that resemble those of large public school systems, such as a district superintendent and a central administration. Tuition at Catholic parochial and diocesan schools is generally low compared to other private schools because parishes and dioceses subsidize part of school expenses.

Other Catholic schools are controlled by independent religious orders of the Catholic Church, such as the Jesuits, Benedictines, and Christian Brothers (see Brothers of the Christian Schools). These schools usually offer only high school level instruction, and their academic programs are typically more demanding than either parochial or diocesan schools. They also often charge higher tuition than parochial or diocesan schools because they receive less in church subsidies. The National Catholic Educational Association is the largest national group representing Catholic schools in the United States.

A.2.

Other Religious Schools

Non-Catholic, religiously oriented schools enroll 34 percent of all private school students in the United States. Most of these schools are supported by various Protestant organizations (see Protestantism). The majority of Protestant schools are affiliated with so-called conservative Christian associations. Many are operated by individual churches, much as Catholic parochial schools are associated with local parishes. Since the 1960s the number of conservative Christian schools and their enrollments has grown more rapidly than any other type of private school. In addition to these schools, many other national Protestant denominations support private schools, especially Adventists, Baptists, Lutherans, Episcopalians, and Quakers (see Society of Friends). The majority of Protestant and Catholic students, however, attend public schools.

Non-Christian religious organizations also have established many private schools, particularly during the second half of the 20th century. Among the most common are Jewish schools, sometimes called Hebrew day schools (see Judaism).

B.

Nonsectarian Schools

Nonsectarian, or secular, private schools are usually not affiliated with any religion or church. Some nonsectarian schools originated as religious institutions but now welcome all students. These schools generally emphasize the development of moral character more than the study of organized religion. Other independent schools may have highly specialized educational programs that focus on particular subjects, such as science, math, and the performing arts.

Independent college preparatory schools (prep schools) are generally the wealthiest, best known, and most expensive of all private schools. Some of the most prestigious preparatory boarding schools—such as Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, and Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire—draw students from across the nation and, increasingly, from around the world. Some of the most prestigious preparatory day schools include the The Dalton School and The Brearley School in New York City; Roxbury Latin School in Boston, Massachusetts; Francis W. Parker School in Chicago, Illinois; and Lakeside School in Seattle, Washington. In 1995 the average annual tuition for high school students at independent day schools exceeded $10,000.

III.

Characteristics of Private Schools

Unlike public schools—which are controlled by state and local governments—private schools in the United States are relatively free from governmental regulation. Consequently, private schools vary considerably in their philosophy, mission, and educational method. Nevertheless, private schools typically share certain characteristics that distinguish them from public schools. These include (1) a decentralized system of governance, (2) high academic expectations, (3) small enrollment and class size, and (4) shared values.

A.

Decentralized Governance

Most private religious schools are governed by some larger entity, such as a local church or a Catholic diocese. Private secular schools are generally governed by their own boards of directors or trustees. Private schools generally seek periodic review, or accreditation, by an independent agency to maintain their reputation and to qualify for certain forms of governmental assistance.

Regardless of their organizational structure, private schools are largely free to manage their own affairs. They can choose their students, their faculty, and their curriculum, and make their own internal rules. But they are not wholly free from governmental regulation. State constitutions permit states to regulate all schools—both public and private—to a reasonable degree. For example, a state might require all schools to teach a particular subject, such as the state’s history. Most states require private schools to obtain a state charter that recognizes their status as a private, nonprofit corporation. Such incorporation enables a school to seek exemption from paying taxes and increases tax incentives for individuals to make charitable gifts to a school. Private schools are also subject to numerous state and federal regulations concerning the health and safety of students and staff members. Nonprofit private schools must also abide by federal laws protecting against discrimination.

The internal governance of most private schools differs from that of most public schools in several respects. In private schools, authority is concentrated in the individual schools rather than in the administrative offices of school systems. In addition, private school principals often have considerably more authority than their counterparts in public schools. This is usually true even for Catholic diocesan schools. Teachers in private schools also tend to have more authority over curriculum decisions than do public school teachers. In schools run by boards of trustees, parents of current and former students often constitute a board majority.

B.

High Academic Expectations

Most private schools have relatively high expectations for academic achievement. For example, unlike all but a few public schools, more than 20 percent of all private elementary schools and more than 30 percent of private secondary schools require applicants to pass some kind of academic test before being granted admittance. On most measures of academic expectations, such as the amount and difficulty of homework assigned, private schools generally demand more of their students than do public schools. Private schools are also more likely than public schools to focus on preparing students for college. Unlike most public high schools, few private high schools offer vocational, technical, commercial, or other programs targeted to students who will not pursue a college education. As a result, private school students are much more likely to apply to college than are public school students. In 1994, 88 percent of senior-year students in private high schools applied to colleges, compared to 58 percent of seniors in public high schools.

C.

Small Enrollment and Class Size

Private schools are typically much smaller than public schools. For example, only 19 percent of private schools in the United States enroll 300 or more students, compared to 70 percent of public schools. In addition, 25 percent of American private schools enroll fewer than 50 students, compared to just 3 percent of public schools. Although large public schools often offer a wider range of academic programs and support services, many people think that smaller schools are easier to manage and create a stronger sense of community between teachers and students. Supporters of private schools also claim that smaller enrollments give teachers greater opportunities to become acquainted with their students. In turn, this greater familiarity with students allows teachers to better assess each student’s strengths and weaknesses, and then tailor instruction to meet individual needs.

Class size and the total number of students taught by each teacher in American private schools are also typically smaller than in public schools. In the 1998-1999 academic year the average class size was 16 in private elementary schools and 11 in private secondary schools, compared to an average class size of 19 in public elementary and 15 in public secondary schools. In addition, in all of their classes combined, teachers in nonsectarian private schools at the secondary level teach a total of approximately 60 students—about half that of a typical public school teacher. However, these figures vary considerably depending on the type of private school.

D.

Shared Values

Most private schools offer programs of instruction that center on some set of shared values. For instance, some schools concentrate on particular subjects, such as the arts or the environment. Others focus on developing their students’ character around a shared set of spiritual or religious values. Still others approach character development by emphasizing the importance of social service and social justice. In addition, the values shared by the administration, faculty, and students at private schools can often form a unique sense of community at private schools. Some schools may further develop this sense of community by implementing a distinctive teaching method or by requiring students to wear school uniforms. Others, such as residential boarding schools and single-sex institutions, may offer unique social environments.

IV.

History

Until the 1830s and 1840s there was no sharp distinction between public and private schools in the United States. Widespread systems of public schooling did not yet exist anywhere in the country, and schools operated by private individuals and groups were often supported by public funds. In addition, local governments funded and managed many schools that routinely included Bible reading and prayer in the curriculum.

The common-school movement, which began in the 1830s, advocated the establishment of schools wholly supported and directed by government. This movement was the first widespread effort to create free public schooling for all children in the United States. Proponents claimed that common schools could promote a common culture among disparate elements of the American population. Common school advocates also repudiated governmental funding of nonpublic schools, especially Catholic schools.

As the number of Catholic immigrants to the United States increased in the second half of the 19th century, Catholic leaders perceived that most common, or public, schools had a Protestant bias. For example, many public schools required students to read the King James version of the Bible, the version authorized by most Protestant churches but not by the Catholic Church. In the 1880s the Catholic Church officially called for the development of a separate and private Catholic school system. The division between public and private schools became more pronounced in 1925 as a result of the case Pierce v. Society of Sisters. In this case, the Supreme Court of the United States reversed an Oregon law requiring all children in the state to attend public schools. The Court ruled that children were not mere creatures of states and that states had no power to “standardize” children in a single public school system.

Catholic school enrollments grew tremendously in the first half of the 20th century. By 1960 more than 5 million students attended Catholic schools—roughly the same number that today attend all private schools combined. But various societal changes that began in the 1960s soon caused a major decline in Catholic school enrollments. Public schools became more secular and less biased toward Protestantism. At the same time, Catholics began to prefer a less dogmatic and more mainstream type of education. Both of these changes made public schools more attractive to Catholics. Catholics also moved away from urban centers, where most Catholic schools were located, and many of these schools closed. Other Catholic schools survived by reducing the religious content of their curriculums and recruiting many non-Catholic students, especially members of minority groups.

Meanwhile, the growth of secularism in public schools caused many conservative Christians—a predominantly Protestant group—to establish private schools that focused strongly on religion. Since the 1960s, the growth of enrollments in newly formed conservative Christian schools has helped to hold relatively steady the overall number of students attending private schools.

V.

Private Schools and Public Education Reform

Private schools often experiment with various aspects of education because they are relatively free from governmental control. These experiments in private schools have produced innovations that have extended throughout all sectors of American education. Especially since the 1980s, for example, some educators have advanced ideas for public school reform that closely resemble many existing private school practices. These reformers have sought to imitate common features of private education, such as smaller schools and stronger emphasis on academic achievement. In addition, many education reformers have sought to change the large, bureaucratic management structure of public schools so that it more closely resembles the smaller, school-based management structure of private schools.

Public school reformers also advocate other features typically associated with private education. For example, common proposals for public school reform include empowering teachers to develop their own curriculums, imposing academic standards that are more rigorous, and reducing class size to provide greater individual attention. Beginning in the early 1990s, an increasing number of public school reformers called for the establishment of charter schools. Charter schools are financed with public funds but, like private schools, they set their own curriculum and operate mostly free of intervention from the public system.

VI.

The Role of Government and School Choice

Unlike the governments of many other Western countries, the United States government has established a high wall of separation between church and state. This separation directly affects private education, because most American private schools have traditionally been affiliated with religious organizations. Consequently, governmental financial assistance for private schools has been extremely limited and confined to relatively peripheral matters, such as school transportation and tax breaks. Many private schools prefer not to be involved with government or simply do not need governmental assistance. However, other private schools, especially those that have difficulty attracting large numbers of tuition-paying students, have long lobbied for financial assistance from local and state governments.

Some advocates for students in poorly funded public school systems have argued that low-income families should have the choice of sending their children to private schools. These school reformers make the controversial claim that governments should provide public assistance directly to parents and students, rather than to public school systems. Some local school systems have attempted to distribute such assistance in the form of vouchers to help pay the cost of tuition at private schools.

In keeping with the constitutional separation of church and state, the U.S. Supreme Court historically has struck down legislation that allocates public funds for private schools. In the case Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), the Court adopted a three-part test for any valid use of public funds to aid private schools. The Court ruled that school-financing legislation must have a secular purpose, it must neither advance nor impede religion, and it must avoid excessive governmental entanglement with religious concerns. The Court then applied that test in 1973 in the case Committee for Public Education and Religious Liberty v. Nyquist, striking down a New York State program that provided tuition grants to low-income families with children in private secular and religious schools.

Despite these rulings, public support has grown steadily for government-funded tuition vouchers that low-income families could use at private schools. In a landmark case in 2002, Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5 to 4 that an Ohio program that provided such vouchers was constitutional because parents could choose to use the money at either religious or nonreligious private schools, making the program neutral toward religion. Critics argued that the program had the effect of advancing religious education because more than 96 percent of all voucher recipients attended religious private schools. Although vouchers continue to be controversial, the Court’s decision was expected to lend support to further experiments with voucher programs around the United States.