National Parks and Preserves

B

Nationalism

Since the end of World War II, dozens of new nations have emerged around the world. The spirit of nationalism (a desire for national independence, frequently associated with a unique ethnic or cultural identity) that fostered these nations’ rise also prompted new conservation efforts in many of these nations. Nations that inherited conservation missions from the colonial governments preceding them at last developed national parks and preserves in their own national interest.

Nationalism has not always benefited the national parks movement. The need to develop national economies and defense establishments, often at the expense of natural resources, coupled with regional conflicts between nations, frequently has been at odds with conservation programs. However, over the past 50 years national pride increasingly has been identified with protecting and enhancing both plant and animal resources within national boundaries.

In Ukraine, imperial hunting preserves were protected as early as 1913. But the country did not actively protect plants, animals, and their natural habitat until it passed a forestry code in 1979 and the Ukrainian Law on the Protection and Use of Wildlife in 1981. Preservation efforts have increased since Ukraine declared its independence from the former Soviet Union in 1991.

Estonia, which also broke away from the former Soviet Union in 1991, created 104 sq km (40 sq mi) Karula National Park two years later to protect a landscape of small farms, hills, lakes, and resident wildlife. Most of the park is covered with diverse forests that range from swampy woodlands to stands of pine in dry, sandy terrain. Wolves, moose, otter, beaver, golden eagles, and black storks are among the species that make their home here. The park also preserves the character of the region’s small farms, which escaped the Soviet Union’s communal farming practices.

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In southern Africa, Botswana gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1966, and since has devoted 17 percent of its land to national parks or game preserves. Many of the parks are in the Okavango Delta region, a lush plain during flood season that lures vast numbers of diverse wildlife. Botswana both protects and capitalizes on these wildlife resources. Tourists put tens of millions of dollars into the country’s economy annually through photo and hunting safaris.

C

Historic Preservation and Education

Along with growing nationalism came increased interest and pride in historic events. Nations worldwide set aside key locations that marked historical incidents. In the United States, the Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park (1976) protects 10 sq km (4 sq mi) of trails at the north end of Alaska’s Inside Passage over which prospectors traveled to the Yukon Territory during the legendary stampede of 1897-98. Guatemala’s 575 sq km (222 sq mi) Tikal National Park (1957) preserves the ancient Maya city of Tikal—home to more than 10,000 people prior to ad 900—and habitat for 300 bird species that nest in stands of Spanish cedar and mahogany.

Norway preserves archaeological sites of several 17th century whaling stations and graveyards in 3560 sq km (1375 sq mi) Northwest Spitsbergen National Park (1973). Spain emphasizes education combined with strict preservation in several of its national parks. Within Covadonga Mountains National Park (1918), a historic shrine that commemorates the battle in AD 772 between the Spanish Christian army and Islamic Moors, are caves with prehistoric drawings on the walls. The 189 sq km (65 sq mi) park provides refuge for golden eagles, griffon vultures, goshawks, peregrine falcons and other raptors (birds of prey), dozens of butterfly species, and 40 orchid species.

IV

Challenges Facing National Parks and Preserves

Despite the official protection granted them by governments, national parks and preserves worldwide face threats from outside their boundaries. These threats range from logging, mining, and livestock grazing to the encroachment of growing human populations. In addition, poaching, the illegal capture or killing of fish and wildlife within a national park or preserve, produces at least $5 billion in global business annually.

A

Threats from Development, Overuse, and Misuse

In the United States, the 6097 sq km (2354 sq mi) of wetlands protected within Florida’s Everglades National Park were endangered by development even before this area became a national park in 1947. Since then continued construction of canals and levees for water resource management upstream from the park slowly has strangled the swampy Everglades. These canals and levees reroute the natural downstream flow of water from Lake Okeechobee, which feeds the park’s fragile ecosystem. Farms near the park’s borders compound the problem by further rerouting other natural water flows to irrigate cropland and by indirectly poisoning the ecosystem through runoff water containing fertilizer. To restore the park's natural water flows, in 2000 the United States Congress passed the Everglades Restoration Act. The 30-year plan was designed to return the natural flow of water to the Everglades by removing levees. It also included plans to restore the quality and quantity of water flowing into the Everglades.

Mineral production and water pollution from mining threaten some preserves in India. In 1992 mining was permitted in Sariska Tiger Reserve (1958), which covers 492 sq km (190 sq mi). Logging, which destroys forest habitats and causes water pollution from soil erosion, and water projects for irrigation and flood control were allowed in 1598 sq km (617 sq mi) Melghat Tiger Reserve (1985). Hunting and logging threaten protected areas in northern Argentina, while overcrowding from tourism threatens southern parks and preserves. Livestock grazing harms protected areas throughout the country.

As the number of visitors to national parks throughout the world continues to rise, conflicts among tourists, scientists, and wildlife increase. Cars, trucks, and recreational vehicles jam popular destinations, polluting wilderness environments with vehicle exhaust emissions, litter, and noise. Streams of hikers wear down park trails. Many visitors trample native plants by walking beyond designated trails, and some carry in non-native plants that threaten native vegetation.

Poachers have no regard for national park and preserve boundaries. In Africa the black rhinoceros is endangered because poachers sell its horns for folk medicines. Elephants are slaughtered for ivory, despite an international ban on ivory sales. Both elephants and giraffes are killed for meat. Wild parrots and lizards are trapped for sale as pets; crocodiles and snakes are killed for their skins; monkeys are captured for sale to circuses and zoos.

Not even Yellowstone National Park is immune from poachers, who hunt trophy elk there. Wildlife spooked by park visitors needlessly burn energy required for survival in harsh winters as they run away. Conflicts between bears and humans often cause bears to be killed by park rangers to protect the human population. In Arizona’s 4931 sq km (1904 sq mi) Grand Canyon National Park (1919), the popularity of scenic flights over the canyon has resulted in noise pollution for canyon hikers as well as deadly plane crashes.

Even nature threatens some national parks and preserves. In the United States, erosion and shifting beaches threaten historic lighthouses on Cape Hatteras National Seashore (1937), which covers 181 sq km (70 sq mi) of North Carolina coastline, and 122 sq km (47 sq mi) Cape Cod National Seashore (1961) in Massachusetts.

B

Protecting Natural Migration Corridors

Political boundaries that define the shape of national parks and preserves cannot restrain the natural migration of wildlife. Migration corridors, routes that animals travel annually between habitats for summer and winter grazing and for giving birth, often lead them beyond protected areas. As a result, wildlife that wanders beyond a particular sanctuary sometimes clashes with animals and humans on neighboring, unprotected lands.

Elk and bison herds protected in Yellowstone National Park often roam beyond the park’s northern boundary for traditional wintering grounds in the sheltered, milder climate of Montana’s Paradise Valley. Because migrating bison often carry a disease that causes cows to abort their unborn fetuses, federal and state wildlife officers kill many bison to keep them from spreading the infection to other wild herds and domestic livestock.

Gray wolves, which were returned to Yellowstone in 1995, travel beyond park boundaries as they roam the northern Rocky Mountain region in search of prey. The wolves once thrived in Yellowstone National Park and surrounding regions, but were eliminated as agricultural development increased around the park because they threatened livestock. These predators were returned to Yellowstone to restore a natural balance by controlling elk and bison populations. Wolves have been killed by ranchers for attacking livestock on range land beyond the park’s boundaries.

Logging, mining, and oil and natural gas exploration near national parks in Canada’s western provinces disrupt natural migration corridors and destroy natural habitats beyond the protected areas. These activities threaten woodland caribou herds, which rely heavily on old-growth forests for food, shelter, and calving grounds. Woodland caribou also are drawn to salt spread on icy roads, where some are killed in collisions with cars and trucks. One herd of fewer than 25 woodland caribou already has been isolated in a remote area of Banff National Park. Proposed development in traditional caribou habitat north of Alberta’s unspoiled 4597 sq km (1775 sq mi) Willmore Wilderness Park (1959) would further jeopardize herds that migrate through the park.

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