Polish Americans

I

Introduction

Polish Americans, residents of the United States who trace their ancestry to Poland or Polish-speaking regions of Europe. According to the 2000 U.S. census, some 9.1 million Americans claim Polish ancestry. The Polish American community, known as Polonia, is concentrated in the large cities of the Northeast and the Great Lakes region.

II

History

The social structure of the Polish American community is linked with the complex history of Poland. The rise and fall of Poland’s fortunes produced four distinct waves of Polish immigration to the United States. Each of these groups created a distinctive identity within the Polish American community.

Poland’s Golden Age, a period of political independence and cultural innovation, peaked in the late 16th century. Polish fortunes soon declined as a result of wars and political setbacks. Between 1772 and 1797, Russia, Prussia, and Austria divided up and annexed all of Poland. In spite of Poland’s loss of political independence, the Polish people clung to their culture and national traditions until the country was reestablished at the conclusion of World War I in 1918.

The largest wave of Polish immigration to the United States occurred between 1888 and 1921. During this period, more than 2 million Polish immigrants entered the United States. Many moved back and forth between Poland and the United States. When Poland became independent in 1918, over 250,000 Polish immigrants returned to their homeland and immigration began to decline. In 1921 the United States adopted a quota system that imposed strict limits on the number of immigrants admitted to the United States each year. The law resulted in a sharp drop in immigration from Poland and other countries.

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Most of the Polish immigrants who arrived in the United States between 1880 and 1921 were former peasants from rural Poland. However, more prosperous and educated Poles also established themselves in the United States. Both groups settled in urban areas in the United States. Many Polish Americans found jobs as industrial workers, especially in the steel industry and manufacturing. They often established neighborhoods near the factories where they worked. More educated Polish immigrants went into business and formed organizations. Most Polish Americans were members of the Roman Catholic Church, and they soon founded Catholic parish churches in their neighborhoods. Although they adapted to life in their new country, Polish Americans remained proud of their connection to Poland. Polish Americans often provided financial support to independence movements in their homeland. During World War I, they even raised a division of 28,000 volunteer soldiers that fought alongside Polish forces in Europe.

In 1939 Germany began World War II by invading Poland. The Germans swiftly subdued the country and imposed a regime based on the principles of National Socialism, which included the systematic extermination of Poles and Jews. As many as 6 million Poles were killed during the war, including 3 million Polish Jews. In addition to those killed in battle, large numbers of Poles were sent to concentration camps by the Nazis. Many Polish soldiers escaped to continue the war from France and the Soviet Union.

After the war ended in 1945, a Communist government backed by the Soviet Union came to power in Poland (see Communism). Over the next several years, 200,000 Polish refugees and displaced persons were resettled in the United States. These postwar refugees included many well-educated Poles from urban areas. Their relations with the established Polish American community were often strained and sometimes hostile.

A third group of Polish immigrants came to the United States between 1971 and 1989. Many people in this group originally entered the United States on tourist visas, but remained in the country to live and work illegally. This group created its own community in the United States. Like the group that preceded it, immigrants of the 1970s and 1980s often quarreled with the established Polish American community. Before coming to the United States, many of these immigrants had been active in the Solidarity movement, a trade union movement that often challenged Poland’s Communist leaders. They often disagreed with established community leaders about the best way to help the Polish people overthrow the Communist regime. Many of these new immigrants spoke English poorly. They often took low-paying, unglamorous jobs in the United States. More affluent Polish Americans often viewed these newcomers with embarrassment.

The pro-democracy Solidarity movement forced Poland’s Communist government from power in 1989. Since then, much smaller third and fourth waves of Polish immigrants have come to the United States. This group includes a higher proportion of people fluent in English than earlier groups. Many of these immigrants have job skills that make them attractive to potential employers. In 1992, 34 percent of the Polish immigrants entering the United States were professionals and 27 percent were skilled workers. Only 7 percent had formerly worked in low-paying service sector jobs in Poland. In the 1980s and 1990s, a relatively large number of Polish “visitors” have remained in the United States as illegal workers, sending money back to their families in Poland.

III

Culture

The diversity of the Polish American population today is reflected in a variety of community organizations. These organizations range from small local church groups to large associations, such as the Polish Roman Catholic Union, the Polish Women’s Alliance, and the Polish National Alliance. The main political association, the Polish American Congress (PAC), was founded during World War II to promote the freedom and independence of Poland. Today, PAC lobbies national and state legislatures on issues of interest to Polish Americans and promotes Polish American culture. Cultural groups include the Polish Institute of Arts and Science in America, the Kosciuszko Foundation, the Polish American Historical Association, and the American Council of Polish Cultural Clubs.

Many Polish Americans have intermarried with members of other ethnic groups. The community has also become geographically dispersed. Like members of other immigrant groups, many Polish American families have moved from inner-city ethnic neighborhoods to the suburbs. Others have moved to regions of the country far away from the Polish American community’s traditional centers.

Descendants of the earliest immigrants identify with their Polish heritage mainly through folk culture. They celebrate holidays and family events with distinctly Polish traditions, such as dancing the polka at weddings and breaking an optatki (thin wafer) at Christmas for good luck in the coming year. Family gatherings often include traditional Polish foods, such as pierogi (stuffed dumplings) and bigos (sauerkraut and meat). Catholic religious holidays are the most important celebrations in many Polish American communities. Members of more recent immigrant waves identify with the Polish national, rather than folk culture.

To modern Poles, the Polish spoken by most descendants of early immigrants sounds old-fashioned. Recent immigrants, speaking more modern forms of Polish, have brought new life to Polish-language magazines, cabarets, and theater in the United States. The Polish American community and Poland are now linked by a lively exchange of people, culture, and artistic events.

IV

Contemporary Issues

In the United States, many Polish Americans complain that they are accorded less respect than other European immigrant groups. Anti-Polish prejudice is reflected in the widespread popularity of Polish jokes that portray Poles as ignorant. Polish Americans often express dismay at the lack of knowledge other Americans display about Poland and the Polish American community.

Relations between the Polish American community and Poland are also a source of concern. Many Polish Americans do not identify with contemporary Polish national culture. Some Polish Americans believe that the support they have provided through the years to movements dedicated to reclaiming Polish independence is not adequately appreciated in Poland.

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