Foreign Policy

I

Introduction

Foreign Policy, a course of action or set of principles adopted by a nation’s government to define its relations with other countries or groups of countries. A country’s foreign policy also sets forth its positions on a wide range of international issues. A country’s foreign policy may reflect broad national objectives or represent a narrow and specific response to a particular situation. A country can achieve its foreign policy goals in several ways. It can use diplomacy—that is, peaceful negotiations with other countries. It can employ economic actions such as giving money or other aid to another country, or it can restrict trade with that nation or impose economic sanctions on it. It also can resort to military force.

A country’s foreign policy can be influenced by many variables, including its historical alliances with other nations, its culture, type of government, size, geographic location, economic ties, and military power. A country’s foreign policy is usually aimed at preserving or promoting its economic and political interests abroad and its position in the world.

The analysis of foreign policy has traditionally focused on government actions, particularly those related to political and military issues. But in recent decades the focus has changed. Today many nongovernmental groups or organizations, known as NGOs, play an important role in foreign policy. Groups as diverse as Amnesty International, a nonpartisan organization that advocates for human rights, and al-Qaeda, a terrorist organization responsible for the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001, enlarge the number of foreign policy actors in the world today. Foreign policy actions are also initiated by organizations representing a group of governments, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a multinational defense alliance that includes, among others, the United Kingdom, France, and the United States. Organizations such as the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA), an economic organization of Canada, Mexico, and the United States, and the United Nations (UN), a global organization of more than 190 nations, also play a role in setting foreign policy. These groups and organizations have adopted foreign policies on a wider range of issues than in the past, including human rights, trade, peacekeeping, and arms control. As a result, the array of foreign policy issues has become increasingly diverse.

The rest of this article focuses on foreign policy in the United States. See also American Foreign Policy.

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Under the Constitution of the United States, both the Congress of the United States and the president have the responsibility of setting U.S. foreign policy. The U.S. Constitution also dictates that some of that power be shared between the two. In general, the president shapes foreign policy, with the advice of the secretary of state and the Department of State, but the president also has numerous other national security officials in the executive branch to assist in shaping foreign policy. Congress approves the funding needed to carry out that policy. The U.S. Senate must also approve any treaties initiated by the president by a two-thirds vote. In addition, U.S. Congress can criticize actions the president and administration have carried out, and U.S. Congress has, from time to time, imposed restrictions on U.S. foreign policy actions.

The dividing line between the power of the president and that of U.S. Congress to set foreign policy is not always clear. As a result, U.S. Congress and the president have sometimes struggled for that authority throughout various periods of American history. But since the end of World War II in 1945, the president has been generally recognized as having the principal authority to create foreign policy. Both U.S. Congress and the courts have deferred to the president on foreign policy questions. Political parties, special interests groups, and public opinion have generally played a secondary role.

II

In the Early United States

Since early in American history, presidents have dominated foreign policy. President George Washington set the country’s early approach to foreign policy in his Farewell Address of 1796, which he gave upon leaving office. In that address, Washington called on the United States to adopt a policy of isolationism and avoid forming alliances with other nations. Washington wanted to protect the new nation from foreign influences and encourage greater domestic development. In 1823 President James Monroe echoed Washington’s warning in a message sent to U.S. Congress. The message, known as the Monroe Doctrine, said the United States should stay out of European affairs and warned European nations not to interfere with the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. Other early American presidents also significantly influenced the nation’s foreign policy. For example, James K. Polk expanded the American border to the south and west.

III

In the Early 20th Century

In the 20th century, presidents continued to set foreign policy, and their power grew significantly. For example, in 1898 President William McKinley led the nation into the Spanish-American War, despite the country’s previous policy of isolationism. He justified American involvement on moral grounds. The United States was supporting Cuba’s fight for independence from Spain. President Theodore Roosevelt further expanded American involvement abroad with actions in Latin America and elsewhere. He supported a revolt in Panama against Colombian rule in 1903 that led to an independent Panamanian government. The new government signed a treaty granting the United States the right to build the Panama Canal, a major trade route in Central America connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. As a result of these actions, the presidency grew in stature and U.S. influence in global affairs also increased.

IV

During the World Wars

President Woodrow Wilson also used moral grounds to justify U.S. involvement in World War I (1914-1918). Wilson led the country into war saying he wanted “to make the world safe for democracy.” After World War I ended, Wilson supported the effort to create the League of Nations, an international organization designed to promote peace and cooperation between nations. When the Senate rebuffed Wilson’s attempt to have the United States join the League, the pendulum of foreign policymaking shifted to U.S. Congress for a time.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt reestablished the power of the presidency to set foreign policy and led the United States into World War II (1939-1945). After the war, the United States abandoned its policy of isolationism. The country recognized the need for allies to maintain its position in the world.

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