Trench Warfare

I

Introduction

Trench Warfare, fighting from a network of fortifications dug or constructed at or below ground level. It developed as a protracted method of warfare after the machine gun had become the main battlefield weapon. During World War I (1914-1918), the machine gun’s range and firing power made it difficult, if not impossible, for troops to move easily to new positions. Artillery fire by land forces also affected the ability to maneuver. Trenches were dug along battlefield fronts, and the resulting trench warfare created a stalemate that lasted for most of the war.

Trench warfare involved different types of trenches, such as firing trenches, cover trenches, supply trenches, and communication trenches. Firing trenches, from which troops fired weapons at the enemy, were backed up by cover trenches, which provided a second line of defense in case enemy troops overran the firing trench. “Resting” off-duty troops lived in dugouts in support trenches. Supplies and fresh troops were transported to the front via a network of reserve and communications trenches. Between the trenches of opposing forces lay an area known as no man’s land.

II

History

Although trench warfare has become synonymous with World War I, it can be traced back at least to the 19th century. During the Crimean War (1853-1856), trenches were dug by the Anglo-French force besieging Sevastopol’, and in the American Civil War (1861-1865), Confederate trench lines at Petersburg, Virginia, stretched for some 85 km (53 mi). See also Petersburg National Battlefield.

III

The World War I Stalemate

Soon after the outbreak of World War I, a series of outflanking movements, known as the Race to the Sea, led to trench lines being dug from the Belgian coast to the Swiss frontier as both sides tried to protect themselves from artillery and machine guns. These weapons also caused the Allied campaign against Turkish forces at Gallipoli, from April 1915 to January 1916, to degenerate into trench warfare. 

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On the Western Front, the German troops invariably dominated the high ground. They constructed well-fortified trenches, some with dugouts 12 m (40 ft) underground. The British lines were less well constructed because they were not intended to be permanent. British forces put their focus on trying to break the German lines. 

At first improvised weapons such as catapults were used to throw bombs into enemy trenches. These were replaced by trench mortars. Other new weapons such as mustard gas and tanks were developed to try to break through the enemy lines.

IV

End of the Stalemate

Breakthrough attacks, such as in the protracted Battle of the Somme in 1916, were unsuccessful. A new tactic of “bite and hold,” in which a small gain was held at all cost, was employed during 1917; this too was unsuccessful. In March 1918 the German spring offensive brought the German troops out of their trenches and resulted in a return to open warfare. Improved tactics, leadership, and technology combined to allow the British Expeditionary Force to win a decisive victory. 

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