Magic (sorcery)

I

Introduction

Magic (sorcery), art of attaining objectives, acquiring knowledge, or performing works of wonder through supernatural or nonrational means. Techniques used in magic typically include chants and spells, gestures or actions that often have a symbolic relation to the desired result (for example, acting out a successful hunt of the past to make a future hunt successful), and the use of substances believed to have a special relationship with the powers needed to accomplish the intended purpose.

II

Types of Magic

Anthropologists distinguish three types of magical practice: homeopathic magic, or the use of small portions of a thing to represent and affect the whole; sympathetic magic, in which a symbolic action (for example, sticking pins into a doll) affects an object with which the symbol is in “sympathy” or harmony; and contagious magic, the influencing of one thing through contact with another that is believed to be magically charged. The theoretical foundation for most magical practices is a belief in correspondences, or hidden relationships among entities within the universe—especially between human beings and the external world. According to this view, the application of the right colors, objects, sounds, or gestures in a given context can bring about the desired result. The theory of correspondences affirms the power of thought to confer reality on products of the imagination, particularly when these thoughts are expressed through significant symbols.

Magic is widely practiced in primal and traditional societies. In such contexts magic is not simply a prescientific way of attaining practical ends—it may also involve at least a partial symbolic recognition of the society’s spiritual world view and of its gods and myths. In this respect magic often merges with religion, and indeed the line between the two is frequently blurred. Religion, however, is usually regarded as the public acknowledgment of spirituality, while magic tends to be private and oriented toward power and gain by supernatural means rather than toward worship. A distinction can also be drawn between white and black magic: White magic is employed for benign ends, and black magic is used to harm others. Black magic is sometimes referred to as witchcraft or sorcery, even though many people who practice witchcraft do not seek to cause harm.

Magic in the supernatural sense is different from stage magic, in which apparent magical effects are produced for entertainment through such means as sleight of hand (see Magic). A distinction is also made between magic and divination, which is the art of foretelling the future course of events: Magic attempts to affect the future, not merely to predict it. By this definition, occult practices such as astrology, card-reading, and palmistry are not magical (see Occultism), whereas concocting love potions and casting spells are magical practices, as is the art of invoking spirits by means of chants and gestures (see Spiritualism). Many practitioners of magic also believe that these techniques must be combined with concentration of thought upon the desired objective.

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III

Origins and History

Euro-American traditions of magic have deep and complex roots. Some spells and practices can be traced back to ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome, particularly those spells and practices related to spiritual evocation, gemstones, and numbers (see Pythagoras). During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), science, religion, and magic often were not clearly distinguished in either Judaism or Christianity. In medieval Europe, ancient magical traditions became deeply intertwined with the Jewish mystical system called Kabbalah and also with surviving pre-Christian folk magic, which involved a wide assortment of spells, charms, customs, and beliefs.

From the 15th century to the 18th century, during the period of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Age of Enlightenment, the relationship between science and magic underwent a fundamental readjustment as Western society entered the scientific era. The Renaissance at first seemed to promise a rebirth of magic. Intellectuals such as Italian philosopher Pico della Mirandola rediscovered classical philosophy, including its occultist and magical practices, and protoscientists such as German physician Paracelsus affirmed these practices, partly in defiance of medieval religiosity. Both the Roman Catholic church and the new Protestantism, however, turned more sharply than ever against magic and the occult arts. One result of this turn was the torture and burning of women accused of witchcraft—that is, the practice of magic. At the same time, science was gradually constructing a model for understanding the world that appeared to undercut the main premises of magic, particularly the theory of correspondences. By the end of the 18th century, magic had few serious adherents among the educated classes.

Folk magic and “underground” magic, however, have continued. In the Americas, for example, traditional forms of religion that resemble magic have mingled with West African practices to produce living institutions like Vodun (also spelled Vodou or voodoo) and Santería, both of which combine a robust religious world view with magical practices. From the sociological and psychological points of view, magic often provides a means of self-affirmation and empowerment for those who feel excluded by the dominant classes of a society and its educational and scientific institutions.

Despite its apparent incompatibility with current scientific thought, magic reflects deeply rooted tendencies of the human mind. The manipulation of symbols is evident not only in religion, but also in art, poetry, politics, rhetoric, and commerce. Ancient magical processes of mind are also reflected to varying degrees in common practices such as the use of mascot figures and the enshrining of photographs and even locks of hair of loved ones on a dresser or mantle. Whereas most people expect that such practices influence only their way of thinking about a particular circumstance, the magician believes that these practices affect external reality.