Middle Ages

I

Introduction

Middle Ages, period in the history of Europe that lasted from about ad 350 to about 1450. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the western half of the Roman Empire began to fragment into smaller, weaker kingdoms. By the end of the Middle Ages, many modern European states had taken shape. During this time, the precursors of many modern institutions, such as universities and bodies of representative government, were created.

No single event ended the ancient world and began the Middle Ages. In fact, no one who lived in what is now called the Middle Ages ever thought of themselves as living in it. In the Middle Ages, people thought they were living in modern times, just as people do today.

The term Middle Ages was invented by people during the Renaissance, a period of cultural and literary change in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The term was not meant as a compliment. During the Renaissance, people thought that their own age and the time of ancient Greece and Rome were advanced and civilized. They called the period between themselves and the ancient world 'the Middle Age.' The adjective medieval comes from the Latin words for this term, medium (middle) and aevum (age).

Historians adopted this term even though it was originally meant to belittle the period. Since the Middle Ages covers such a large span of time, historians divided it into three parts: the Early Middle Ages, lasting from about 350 to about 1050; the High Middle Ages, lasting from about 1050 to about 1300; and the Late Middle Ages, lasting from about 1300 to about 1450. Historians used to believe that most of the cultural, economic, and political achievements of the Middle Ages occurred in the second period, and because of this they called that period “High.” Only recently, as the accomplishments of the Early and Late Middle Ages have gained appreciation, has this term fallen into disuse. Today, historians often use a more neutral name, the Central Middle Ages.

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II

The Transformations of the Roman World

The institutions of the Middle Ages developed from those of the Roman Empire, which by 200 included much of what is now western Europe, Turkey, and North Africa. Historians once thought that the Middle Ages began with the fall of the Roman Empire, but there was no decisive moment at which the Roman Empire fell or the Middle Ages began. Today historians talk instead about the transformations of the Roman world. This period of change, usually measured from about 350 to 600, is often called Late Antiquity.

A

Late Antiquity

The changes that occurred in the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity were the result of problems that had been building for some time. By the beginning of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire had grown so large that no one emperor could control and protect it all in times of crisis. This became clear when the empire was attacked on two fronts: from the east by the Persians and from the north by the Germans. War continued for nearly the entire century, but in the end, the Romans beat back the invaders.

In the process, however, they changed many of their institutions to better serve the army. The army itself, which had been made up of mobile troops that were deployed to different regions as needed, was now made a standing force stationed at the borders of the empire. Farmers, craftsmen, and other suppliers were forced to help provision the troops, and the power of the army grew. The army took control over the empire and the emperors, assassinating and replacing them at will.

This situation lasted until the accession in 284 of the emperor Diocletian, who restored control over the military. He realized that the empire could not be controlled by one man and so appointed a co-emperor to rule with him. This effectively split the empire into two parts, an eastern half and a western half, each with its own emperor. This division became even more pronounced in the early 4th century when the emperor Constantine the Great, who had deposed his co-emperor to become sole ruler, moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the eastern city of Constantinople (present-day İstanbul, Turkey). The co-emperor system was restored at the end of the 4th century, and western emperors again ruled their half. However, Constantinople had become the real capital of the empire.

This split in imperial rule brought about a change in culture as well. The eastern half of the empire was heavily influenced by the culture and language of Greece, and the Greek-speaking east grew further and further apart from the Latin-speaking West. Thus, the invasions of the 3rd century first militarized and then divided the empire.

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1

Growth of Christianity

At the same time that these political transformations were taking place, religious ideas were changing as well. Romans had been pagans, worshiping gods connected to their ancestors, their hometowns, and various natural forces. Daily life had included tributes to the household gods and frequent community festivals to honor other local gods. Even the emperor was considered a god. In this way, family pride, local loyalties, and imperial politics were all part of religion. When the Romans conquered, they saw no need to change the religion of the people they overcame, as long as their new subjects were willing to accept some Roman deities—including the emperor—alongside their own traditional gods. See also Ancient Rome: Religious Practices.

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