Julius Caesar

A

Gallic Wars

Caesar left Rome for Gaul in the spring of 58 bc and remained there until his invasion of Italy in 49 bc. He conducted military campaigns north of the Alps each summer, leaving his army there each winter while he came south to administer Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum and learn what was happening in Rome. Each winter he wrote up his account of the previous summer’s campaigns. These superbly clear accounts, published as De bello Gallico (The Gallic Wars), cover the years 58 to 52 bc.

Caesar is our prime informant about his campaigns in Gaul. That he minimized, or even concealed, his own mistakes is certain. But these mistakes were infrequent. The events of 58 to 52 bc revealed to Caesar himself and to the Roman world that he was a soldier of genius. Moreover, he emerged from these years an immensely wealthy man as well as an extremely powerful man with a large army at his command.

The country north of Transalpine Gaul was divided, as Caesar said, into three parts, inhabited by the Belgae, Aquitani, and Celts. The Aedui, a Gallic tribe just north of the frontier, had become Roman allies, and they appealed to Caesar for help against two invaders, the Helvetii and the Suebi. Caesar first defeated the Helvetii, a Celtic tribe, and forced them to return to their home area. Next, he crushed the Germanic Suebi led by Ariovistus.

Caesar then resolved to conquer the rest of Gaul. By 57 bc he believed he had completed the task. However, early in 52 bc, while Caesar was still south of the Alps, the conquered peoples in Gaul, including the Aedui, revolted. Caesar had taken advantage of the disunity among the Gauls. To resist Roman rule, they had come together under an intelligent general, Vercingetorix. After suffering several setbacks, Caesar finally defeated Vercingetorix in what was the most spectacular of his military achievements.

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B

Power Play

In 56 bc Caesar won agreement from Pompey and Crassus that he would continue in Gaul for another five years, after Pompey and Crassus won election again as consuls in 55 bc. Following the election Caesar went off to raid Britain and put down a revolt in Gaul. Crassus, ever eager for military glory, was given a command in Syria. Provoking a war with the Parthian Empire, Crassus was defeated and killed at Carrhae in 53 bc. This removed the last buffer between Caesar and Pompey; their family ties had been broken by the death of Julia in 54 bc.

V

Crossing the Rubicon

In 52 bc, with Crassus out of the way, Pompey was made sole consul. Combined with his other powers, this gave him a formidable position. Jealous of his younger rival, he determined to break Caesar’s power. To achieve this objective, he first needed to deprive Caesar of the forces he commanded in Gaul. Pompey ordered him to return to Rome without his troops. To protect himself, Caesar suggested that he and Pompey both lay down their commands simultaneously, but this proposal was rejected. Goaded by Pompey, the Senate called upon Caesar to resign his command and disband his army, or else be considered a public enemy. The tribunes (officials) who supported Caesar vetoed this motion, but they were driven out of the Senate chamber. The Senate then entrusted Pompey with providing for the safety of the state. His forces far outnumbered Caesar’s, but they were scattered throughout the provinces, and his troops in Italy were not prepared for war.

Early in 49 bc Caesar and one of his legions crossed the Rubicon, a small stream separating Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. They moved swiftly southward to be met by additional forces. By bringing an army into Italy, Caesar was breaking the law. He quite possibly expected to persuade the Senate, through Pompey, to negotiate a settlement. But Pompey refused to meet Caesar. Pompey fled to Brundisium (now Brindisi) and from there to Greece.

VI

Civil War

The civil war that began after Caesar crossed the Rubicon lasted four years. Caesar provided an account of the first two years in his De bello civili (Civil Wars). In three months Caesar was master of all Italy; his forces then took Spain and the key port of Massalia (now Marseille). Early in 48 bc he landed in Greece to take on Pompey. In August he smashed Pompey’s forces at Pharsalus. Pompey escaped to Egypt, where he was assassinated upon his arrival. Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt, where he fought the forces of King Ptolemy XIII and triumphed. He then made Cleopatra, sister of Ptolemy and Caesar’s mistress, queen of Egypt. In 47 bc he moved into Asia Minor and defeated Pharnaces, who had taken control of the province of Pontus. Caesar later referred to this victory with the phrase, “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”). The last battle of the civil war took place in Spain against Pompey’s sons in 45 bc. Caesar then returned to Rome.

VII

Dictatorship and Assassination

Caesar was appointed dictator for life in the winter of 45 bc. According to the constitution of the Roman republic, the office of dictator was to be held only for six months and only during a dire emergency. That rule, however, had been broken before. Sulla had ruled as dictator for several years, and Caesar now followed suit. In addition, he was made consul for ten years in 45 bc. He also obtained a series of honors that were out of keeping with Roman tradition, and a statue of Caesar was placed in one of the oldest temples in Rome. Caesar renamed the month Quintilis in the Roman calendar Julius (July), after himself. Above all, he was in total command of the armies, and this remained the backbone of his power.

As a ruler Caesar instituted various reforms. In the provinces he eliminated a highly corrupt tax system, sponsored colonies of veterans, and extended Roman citizenship. At home he negotiated a reasonable settlement of the large debts due to moneylenders, and he reconstituted the courts and increased the number of senators. His reform of the calendar gave Rome a less confusing means of recording time.

A number of senatorial families, however, felt that Caesar threatened their position, and his honors and powers made them fear that he would become a rex (king), a title they hated as republicans—believers that a republic, with an elected government, is the best form of government. Accordingly, in 44 bc, an assassination plot was hatched by a group of senators, including Gaius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus. The respect felt for Brutus’s integrity ensured the success of the plot. On March 15 of 44 bc, when Caesar entered a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators killed him. After a provocative funeral speech by Mark Antony, Caesar’s body was burned in the Roman forum.

Because Caesar had no male heirs, he stipulated in his will that his grandnephew, Octavius, whom he had adopted, become his successor. Octavius became Rome’s first emperor under the name of Augustus.

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