Courts in the United States

I

Introduction

Courts in the United States, government institutions that resolve legal disputes by trial and that hear appeals from such cases. The United States has a federal system of government in which power is divided between a central (national) authority and smaller local units of government (see Federalism). Correspondingly, it has a dual system of federal and state courts that are independent of one another. Because each state has its own system, there are essentially 52 court systems in the United States (the federal system, 50 state systems, and the court system in the District of Columbia).

The authority of a court to decide a case is called its jurisdiction. Courts have jurisdiction only within geographical boundaries. A city court cannot usually try cases that arise outside the city limits and courts in one state rarely have jurisdiction over events happening or people living in other states. Jurisdiction is also limited by types of cases. A court with general jurisdiction may hear many different sorts of cases. The jurisdiction of other courts is limited to particular types of cases—for example, minor crimes, claims against the government, or child custody.

Trial courts conduct trials, at which the parties present evidence and ask a judge or jury for a decision or verdict. Appellate courts hear appeals from the trial courts—that is, they review the lower court’s decision to see whether a legal error was made (see Appeal).

II

Development of Courts in the United States

The settlers who came to England’s colonies in North America brought their legal traditions with them. Like the English courts from which they descended, early American state courts had five principal functions: (1) they conducted criminal trials, (2) they heard cases falling under common law (judge-made law), (3) they heard cases involving statutes, which legislatures sometimes enacted to supplement the common law and even to change it, (4) certain state courts, often called chancery courts, heard special equity cases that did not fall under common law; the chancery courts provided relief based on equity (fairness) and were less restricted by technical legal rules, and (5) a few state courts heard appeals from the decisions of lower courts.

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Until the states adopted the Constitution of the United States in 1789, no national courts existed. Article III, Section 1, of the Constitution established the Supreme Court of the United States and gave Congress the power to create other federal courts. In the Judiciary Act of 1789 Congress created two sets of “inferior” (lower) federal courts—district courts and circuit courts—and gave each jurisdiction to hear certain types of cases. Paradoxically, until the late 19th century federal courts were not permitted to hear cases that involved most types of federal legal issues. Instead, to avoid state courts favoring their own citizens, federal courts were primarily used to settle ordinary common law disputes between citizens of different states.

Unlike state courts, federal courts have no authority to create a general common law, either for a state or the country as a whole. The common law is a body of law developed by the courts in the absence of statutes enacted by the legislature. A federal court cannot pronounce new common law; it may only interpret the law contained in statutes or regulations.

III

Federal Courts

Over the past 200 years the federal judiciary has evolved from a simple set of courts with limited caseloads into a complex arrangement of courts that interact with one another and the state courts. The modern system resembles a three-tier pyramid. At the base lie the U.S. district courts, which are trial courts for both criminal and civil matters. At the top sits the U.S. Supreme Court. In between are the U.S. courts of appeals, which hear appeals from district courts. All these courts operate under procedures established by the Supreme Court.

Federal courts have jurisdiction to hear only those cases allowed under the Constitution and by federal law. These include cases interpreting the Constitution and federal laws and treaties, cases affecting ambassadors and similar foreign officials, disputes between states, admiralty and maritime cases (which concern commerce and navigation on the seas), controversies to which the United States is a party, and disputes between citizens of different states (called diversity jurisdiction cases).

Under federal law, some cases may be heard only by federal courts—for example, patent and copyright disputes. But if jurisdiction is not exclusive, the parties may file cases involving federal claims in state courts instead of in federal court. In diversity jurisdiction cases in which the parties seek monetary damages, federal courts hear only cases that involve claims of $75,000 or more. Cases involving smaller amounts must be heard in state courts.

Federal judges serve lifetime appointments, except for those on some specialized courts. All federal judges must be appointed by the president and confirmed by a majority vote of the Senate.

A

District Courts

Congress has divided the United States into 94 federal districts and authorized about 650 judges to serve in the courts of those districts. Each district is contained within a state and no district overlaps state boundaries. Every state (and Puerto Rico, a U.S. commonwealth) has at least one federal district. Some states have more than one district—New York and California have four. District court trials are presided over by individual judges, who are responsible for controlling every aspect of the cases assigned to them. U.S. district judges are frequently involved in assessing the facts of the cases presented. The district court judge’s findings of fact are ordinarily not appealable, but the appellate court may review the district court judge’s rulings of law.

A defendant facing federal criminal prosecution is entitled to a jury trial. The parties in most federal civil trials are entitled to juries if they wish.

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