Polish Literature

I

Introduction

Polish Literature, literature of the Polish people, written primarily in the Polish language. Polish literary activity began in pagan times with folk literature transmitted exclusively through oral tradition. This early literature falls into two main categories: lyric poetry, devoted to merriment and the joys of living; and epic poetry, consisting of fables, animal epics, allegorical narratives, religious legends, and historical tales.

II

The Medieval Period

In 966 Poland entered the sphere of Christian culture. The native pre-Christian culture of the Poles was rigorously suppressed, and, as was then customary throughout Europe, Latin literature and language became the chief subjects studied in all Polish schools. The most important early Polish works written in Latin include the Chronica, a biographical work written by an anonymous 12th-century author later called Gallus; the Chronica Polonorum, an allegorical chronicle by the 13th-century Kraków bishop Wincenty Kadłubek; and Annales, a historical work distinguished by the careful scholarship of its 15th-century author, Jan Długosz. Vernacular works of this period include the Kazania Świokrzyskie (Sermons of the Holy Cross), fragments of prose sermons from the end of the 13th or the beginning of the 14th century; the Kazania Gnieźnieńskie (Gniezno Sermons), from the 15th century; and such biblical translations as the Psałterz królowej Jadwigi (Psalter of Queen Jadwiga, also called the Psalter of Saint Florian), from the late 14th or early 15th century, and the Biblia królowej Zofii (Bible of Queen Zofia), from the 15th century. Lives of saints, often rhymed, also survive from this period. The poetry of the era comprised historical, didactic, and religious songs, proverbs, and riddles, written in both Latin and Polish. Bogurodzica (Mother of God) is considered to be the oldest Polish religious song; it has served as a battle hymn and also as the Polish national anthem. An important example of Polish secular poetry is Rozmowa mistrza ze Śmierci (Conversation of a Master with Death), a 15th-century work containing elements of social satire.

III

The Renaissance

At the end of the 15th century Polish literature began to change significantly, opening a new era, often called the golden age, of Polish literature. This was the Polish Renaissance, which lasted from about 1500 to 1600. The tradition of the medieval historians was carried on during this period by Maciej of Miechów in two Latin works, Tractatus de Duabus Sarmatiis (Treatise on the Two Sarmatias, 1517) and Chronica Polonorum. The same tradition was continued by Marcin Kromer in his Latin De Origine et Rebus Gestis Polonorum (On the Origins and Deeds of the Poles, 1555), and by Marcin Bielski and Maciej Stryjkowski, who wrote chronicles in Polish. The social and political thought of the time was manifested in the famous Latin treatise De Republica Emendanda (On the Reform of the State, 1551-1554), by Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski. The production of sermons and lives of saints continued during this period; the outstanding writer of these was the Jesuit Piotr Skarga, who followed the great tradition of classical rhetoric.

Poetry developed during this period as never before in Polish history. In the early years of the Polish Renaissance notable poetic works were written in Latin by Paweł of Krosno, Andrzej Krzycki, Jan Dantyszek, Mikołaj Hussowski, and Klemens Janicjusz. By the middle of the 16th century, Polish had begun to supplant Latin as the literary language of the country.

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Among the leading Polish writers of this era was Mikołaj Rej, who produced, in prose as well as verse, dramatic dialogues and moralistic and didactic works including Wizerunek własny żywota człowieka poczciwego (A Faithful Image of an Honest Man, 1558), Zwierciadło (The Mirror, 1567-1568), and Zwierzyniec (Bestiary, 1562). The most significant figure in Polish poetry, however, and especially in lyric poetry, was Jan Kochanowski, who translated the Psałterz Dawidów (David’s Psalter, 1578) and wrote songs, epigrams, and the notable Treny (1580; Laments, 1920), a cycle of poems in which he mourned the loss of his daughter. Kochanowski also wrote a famous play based on classical motifs, Odprawa poslów greckich (1578; The Dismissal of the Grecian Envoys, 1918).

Other poets achieved eminence in this area, among them Sebastian Fabian Klonowic, who wrote the Latin poems Roxolania (Ruthenia, 1584), describing the life of the Ruthenians, and Victoria Deorum (Victory of the Gods, 1587), dealing with educational and moral problems. He also wrote in Polish Flis (1595; The Boatman, 1958) and Worek Judaszów (Judas’s Sack, 1600), portraying particular social classes. Szymon Szymonowic wrote a collection of idylls in the vernacular, and Mikołaj Sp Szarzyński wrote a collection of lyric poetry, Rytmy (Rhythms, 1601), in the baroque style.

IV

The 17th and Early 18th Centuries

In the 17th century Polish literature began to exhibit considerable diversity. The stormy political and military history of the period found expression in numerous diaries, notably the colorful and lively Pamitniki (Memoirs, 1690-1695) of Jan Chryzostom Pasek. Many poetical works had historical themes; for example, Niepróżnujce prożnowanie (Non-idle Idling, 1674) by Wespazjan Kochowski described the military triumphs and defeats of the era. Inspired by the events of his time, Kochowski also wrote Psalmodia polska (Polish Psalmody, 1695), a prose work composed in a biblical style, and a history in Latin, Annales (1683). The patriotic epic Wojna Chocimska (The War of Khotin, 1670) by Wacław Potocki celebrated the victory over the Ottoman Empire in 1621, and his Ogród fraszek (A Garden of Trifles, 1690-1691) provides an insight into the life of the Polish gentry of the time. Samuel Twardowski wrote the long rhymed chronicles Władysław IV (1649) and Wojna Domowa z Kozaki i Tatary (A Civil War with the Cossacks and the Tatars, 1681) and also Dafnis (Daphne, 1638), a dramatic idyll. Another poet, Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, wrote Latin lyrics that earned him the name of “the Christian Horace.” Lyrical poems in Polish were produced by Szymon Zimorowic, a writer of erotic idylls, and by Jan Andrzej Morsztyn, a master of poetic form who wrote the collections of verses Kanikuła (Dog Days, 1647) and Lutnia (Lute, 1661).

The 17th century in Poland was also marked by the production of comedies, such as those by Stanisław Herakliusz Lubomirski. Many satires were written as well, sharply criticizing the social and political scenes; foremost among the writers of these were Krzysztof and Łukasz Opaliński.