Theism

Two significant problems that arise in connection with theism are the existence of evil and the apparent inconsistencies in the concept of God. The existence of seemingly gratuitous evil makes the existence of a theistic God unlikely, critics reason, because if God were all powerful he could eliminate evil, and if he were all good, he would want to do so. Critics of theism have also charged there are inconsistencies in God’s attributes. For example, if God were all good he could not sin, but if he were all powerful he could. Other paradoxes connected with God’s alleged omnipotence may be generated by posing questions such as whether God is powerful enough to create a stone so heavy he could not lift it.

Of the many contemporary philosophical defenders of theism, two of the best known are British philosopher Richard Swinburne and American philosopher Alvin Plantinga. Using induction, Swinburne defends versions of the cosmological and teleological arguments by attempting to demonstrate that God’s existence, if not necessary, is probable. He also points to the seemingly genuine nature of religious experience. Plantinga defends some versions of the ontological argument and what is known as reformed epistemology (theory of knowledge). Reformed epistemology earned its name because its proponents were sympathetic with certain ideas of the Protestant (reformed) tradition associated with 16th-century French theologian John Calvin. According to reformed epistemology, religious beliefs are basic and therefore do not need to be supported by arguments.