Isaiah

I

Introduction

Isaiah, longest prophetic book of the Old Testament. Isaiah, traditionally considered the author of the book, was born the son of Amoz about 760 bc. He prophesied during the reign of Ahaz, king of Judah. One of Isaiah's sons was named Shear-Jashub (Hebrew for “A remnant shall return”; Isaiah 7:3) and another was named Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz (Speedy spoil, quick booty; Isaiah 8:1). According to tradition, Isaiah was martyred in either 701 or 690 bc. The beauty of his style and the consistent nobility of his message made him one of the most revered biblical writers. Although the whole book is attributed to Isaiah, scholars now recognize that it took shape over several centuries, attaining its present form sometime before 180 bc.

The Book of Isaiah falls into two sections, originating in different ages and marked by distinctly different theological outlooks and literary styles. The first 39 chapters date mainly from the time of the historical Isaiah—that is, roughly the latter half of the 8th century bc. The bulk of this section is consequently attributed to the historical prophet and is called First Isaiah. The second section of the book (chapters 40-66) dates to the second half of the sixth century bc and is often subdivided into Second Isaiah and Third Isaiah.

II

First Isaiah

The first section (chapters 1-39) exhibits a variety of literary forms. The first 12 chapters, for example, contain oracles of judgment, numerous denunciations of religious and social abuses, some biographical episodes (such as the prophet's own account of his call in 6:1-13), a parable (5:1-7), and a song of thanksgiving (12:1-6). Moreover, the various subsections apparently date from separate historical periods.

The main theological ideas are found in the first 12 chapters. According to Isaiah, ritual sacrifices to appease God are rendered unholy when offered by those who deal unjustly with others, particularly the less privileged and the poor. Treaties with other nations are in vain, for the hand of God governs all historical events and saves those who trust solely in him. Finally, the people of Israel will be punished for their sins, but a remnant will be recovered and dwell in a perfect age under the rule of a righteous descendant of Jesse. Christian commentators regard the prophecies in chapters 7-12 as descriptions of the Messiah and the messianic age. Many authorities now hold that the Immanuel oracle (7:13-17) was meant to refer to a future son of Isaiah himself; Immanuel (Hebrew for “God with us”) would in that case be the third son of the prophet to bear a prophetic name. This section of Isaiah is sometimes referred to as the Book of Immanuel.

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Chapters 13-23 are pronouncements primarily against foreign nations and enemies of the kingdom of Israel and Judah, most of them dating from the time of, although not necessarily originating with, the historical Isaiah. The principal exceptions are the obviously later passages concerning the overthrow of Babylon (13:1-22, 21:1-10), which fell only in the 6th century bc.

Chapters 24-27 contain material usually found in later apocalyptic writings, a genre of religious literature that foretells the imminent end of the temporal order and the establishment of God's kingdom on earth. Biblical scholars frequently refer to this subsection as the Isaiah Apocalypse, suggesting that the various apocalyptic poems of deliverance, processional and apocalyptic hymns, eschatological prophecies concerning the final Day of the Lord, or day of judgment, and pronouncements of eternal doom and salvation probably all belong to the postexilic period, which began with the rebuilding of Jerusalem in the years following 538 bc.

Chapters 28-33 date mainly from the later period of Isaiah's ministry. Their primary concern is the attempt by Judah to gain support against Assyria through an alliance with Egypt (30:1-7, 31:1-3). The prophet warns that all such attempts will fail, because the people have ceased to trust in divine salvation (28:14-22, 30:1-17). Also included in this subsection are denunciations of Samaria and Assyria, and several passages of consolation (the latter promising future happiness in a restored land under the reign of a righteous and peace-loving king). Most consolation passages probably originated at a later, possibly postexilic, date. Chapter 33, which here seems out of context because of its strongly liturgical mood and form, is thought to be another late addition. Two prophecies that employ eschatological themes make up chapters 34-35 and are thought to date from the postexilic period. The prose account (chapters 36-39) of the siege of Jerusalem by the Assyrian king Sennacherib, which parallels an account of the same events in 2 Kings 18:13-20, 19, probably originated before the exile.

III

Later Isaiah

The second main section of the Book of Isaiah (chapters 40-66) may be divided into two subsections. The first (chapters 40-55) is now attributed to an anonymous author who wrote about the time of the fall of Babylon in 539 bc. He is commonly called Deutero-Isaiah or Second Isaiah. The author (or authors) of the second subsection (chapters 56-66) is referred to as Trito-Isaiah or Third Isaiah.

A

Second Isaiah

The main themes in chapters 40-55 are the following: (1) the Lord God of Israel is “God of the whole earth” (54:5) and beside him there is no other; (2) the nation of Israel, his servant, is to be redeemed from “the furnace of affliction” (48:20) into which God had placed it “for a brief moment” (54:7) because of its past blindness and deafness to his law; (3) the divine instrument for accomplishing the redemption of Israel is to be the Persian king Cyrus the Great (44:28-45:4), and, after the Lord punishes the oppressors of Israel (chapter 47), Zion will be restored, and the Lord “will make her wilderness like Eden, her desert like the garden of the Lord” (51:3).

Four passages of Deutero-Isaiah have had special significance for both Christian and Jewish commentators ever since biblical times. These are the “Servant songs” (42:1-4, 49:1-6, 50:1-9, 52:13-53:12), which Christians traditionally consider to be prophecies concerning the mission and the passion of Jesus Christ, but which most Jews traditionally interpret as a personification of postexilic Israel.

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