Samuel

Samuel, two books of the Old Testament that provide the primary source for the history of Israel during the 11th and 10th centuries bc. Originally a single book in the Hebrew canon of the Bible, they contain the history of Samuel, the last judge of Israel and the first of the prophets after Moses, and the history of the two kings Saul and David.

In modern Bibles, the two books of Samuel immediately precede the two books of the Kings. The first to divide them into four books were scholars who made the early Greek version of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint. These scholars designated the four separated works as the first, second, third, and fourth books of the “Kingdoms.” This fourfold division was followed in subsequent early Latin versions of the Old Testament and eventually into modern times. The division of Samuel into two books did not appear in Hebrew Bibles until the middle of the 15th century ad. In the Hebrew Bible, however, the first two of the books have long been named after Samuel.

The books of Samuel relate the history of the Israelite people from the end of the period of the Judges to the last years of King David's life and reign. This relatively short period is a significant one in Jewish history, for during it the first Hebrew monarchy was established and the Israelite tribes unified into one kingdom with its capital at Jerusalem. The narrative may be divided into three main parts: events occurring in the period between Samuel's birth and Samuel's anointing of Saul to be the first Hebrew king (1 Samuel 1-7), events occurring in Saul's reign (1 Samuel 8-2 Samuel 1), and events occurring in David's reign (2 Samuel 2-24).

According to talmudic tradition, Samuel was the principal author of 1 Samuel. That portion of the book relating events that occurred after Samuel's death was ascribed to the Hebrew seer Gad and the prophet Nathan. Modern scholars generally agree that the books are composite works, by several authors and author-editors from a number of different sources. Some suggest that the books were composed mainly from two sources, designated the Early Source and the Late Source. The Early Source is said to date probably from some time in the reign of Solomon (circa 961-c. 922 bc) and may have been composed by a single person. The Late Source is said to date between 750 and 650 bc. Other scholars suggest that three main sources, designated L, J, and E, were used. The earliest are believed to have been J and L (late 10th century); E is believed to date from the end of the 9th or the beginning of the 8th century bc. The Early Source and the L and J sources favor the establishment, as divinely willed, of the monarchy. The Late Source and E, on the other hand, disapprove of the monarchy, condemning it as unnecessary, a national rejection of God as the true king of Israel. Whatever their origin and authorship, the two books of Samuel have been long appreciated for their remarkable value as history and literature.