John Adams

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First Continental Congress

In 1774 Adams attended the First Continental Congress, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as a member of the Massachusetts delegation. Twelve of the thirteen British colonies from Massachusetts to Georgia were represented in the Congress. They met to respond to the British laws known as the Intolerable Acts, which placed even greater restrictions on colonial life. Like most members of Congress, Adams was there to uphold the rights of the colonies but not to propose independence. Even the most radical of the delegates, like his cousin Samuel Adams, were not ready for a complete break. “There is no man among us,” John Adams told Congress, “that would not be happy to see accommodation with Britain.” Nevertheless, he urged Congress to take a strong stand in view of Britain's violations of citizens' rights in the colonies.

Although Congress made a united protest against British misrule, Adams was not satisfied. Congress had, by one vote, rejected a proposal known as the Galloway Plan, which would have provided for a union of the colonies under one government. Adams returned to Braintree, still insisting that “an American Legislature should be set up without delay.”

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Second Continental Congress

When John Adams set out in May 1775 for Philadelphia and the opening of the Second Continental Congress, the American Revolution had begun with the battles at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. Adams, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, and other New England delegates arrived in Philadelphia ready to press for action against Britain. They wanted the colonies to mobilize for war and to set up a confederation of independent colonies. Finding many delegates hesitant to act, Adams, who was always intolerant of delay, became impatient and irritable. Trying to remain calm, he observed philosophically: “America is a great unwieldy body. Its progress must be slow. It is like a large fleet sailing under convoy. The fleetest sailors must wait for the dullest and the slowest.”

After two weeks, when nothing had been accomplished, Adams could hold back no longer. He addressed Congress in blunt terms. Before talking of peace with Britain, he said, Congress should adopt a program to set up an independent government in each colony. It should use the New England militiamen, who were then blockading the British in Boston, as the basis for a Continental Army, and should name a commander-in-chief who would be responsible to Congress. Finally, Adams proposed, Britain should be told of these steps. Then, if the war continued, the colonies should seek alliances and support in France, Spain, and the Netherlands.

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Only one of Adams's proposals was adopted. A Continental Army was authorized, and Colonel George Washington of Virginia was named commanding general. Adams had recommended Washington not only because he had military training, but also because he was from the South. Adams felt that, to form a national army, the South as well as the North should be represented in it. Therefore the New England troops had to have a Southern commander.

Early in 1776, Adams saw another of his proposals enacted. On May 6, he and his allies in Congress presented a resolution urging all the colonies to form independent governments. The resolution, which to Adams was the most important of his proposals, was passed on May 15.

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Declaration of Independence

In June 1776 Richard Henry Lee, a delegate from Virginia, moved that Congress declare “that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.” The resolution was referred to a committee consisting of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, Robert R. Livingston, and John Adams.

Jefferson wrote the declaration and Adams was spokesman for it when it was presented to Congress. A great debate preceded the final vote. There were many reluctant delegates who still hoped for reconciliation with Britain, but Adams won most of them over. On July 4, 1776, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. In a letter to his wife written on July 3, the day after Lee's resolution was approved, Adams wrote that 'The second day of July…will be celebrated by succeeding generations, as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance…with pomp and parade, with…guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other…”

At the Second Continental Congress, Adams also served as chairman of the Board of War and Ordnance. It was charged with supplying troops, raising money for their pay, and naming officers of the army. Responsible for the actual conduct of the war, this committee took most of Adams's time until 1777.

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American Diplomat

Late in 1777 Congress elected Adams commissioner to France. When he joined the other members of the diplomatic mission, however, he learned that their important work had been completed. France had extended recognition to the United States, and treaties of friendship and commerce had been signed. Adams remained in Paris for a year, studying European political affairs and sending detailed reports to Congress. Because he was also minister plenipotentiary (diplomat with broad powers) to the Netherlands, he made his first attempt to obtain a loan for the colonies from that country.

At the end of 1778, on Adams's recommendation, Congress abolished the commission and named Benjamin Franklin as American diplomatic representative to France. Finding himself without official appointment, Adams returned home.

At home, Adams took a leading part in the Massachusetts constitutional convention. The constitution adopted by Massachusetts was largely his work and became the model for those of many other states. Although it has been amended many times, this constitution is still in use today. Before its final approval in 1780, however, Adams was again sent to Europe.

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Peace Mission

On his second mission, Congress sent Adams to Paris with full power to negotiate a treaty to end the war with Great Britain. He was also authorized to negotiate a commercial agreement with Britain and to become the U.S. diplomatic representative to that country when peace was concluded. However, Britain refused to discuss peace if it meant American independence. France, another party to the talks, wanted the United States to be independent of Britain but subservient to French interests.

Adams was instructed to make no agreements without prior French approval. However, the French soon learned that Adams would not compromise U.S. rights. He quarreled often with the French foreign minister, and after a few fruitless months left for the Netherlands to try again to secure a loan.

In July 1782 after long and difficult negotiations, Adams secured a $2 million loan from Dutch bankers, and in October the Netherlands recognized U.S. independence. Adams then negotiated a treaty of friendship and commerce.

Adams returned to Paris that same month because Britain was at last willing to negotiate. He was joined by Benjamin Franklin and John Jay, whom Congress had appointed to serve with Adams on the U.S. peace commission. For a time there were further delays because France still insisted on prior approval of any peace agreement. Jay urged, with Adams's support, that the U.S. commission ignore its instructions and conclude tentative articles of peace without French oversight. Franklin reluctantly agreed, and soon a treaty was negotiated.

The final Treaty of Paris, officially ending the American Revolution, was not signed until September 3, 1783. Adams made an important contribution by helping to set the boundaries between the United States and Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Superior. He also secured U.S. fishing rights in the North Atlantic Ocean.