Saudi Arabia

B

Judiciary

The laws of Saudi Arabia are based on the Sharia, which is derived from the Qur’an and the Sunna (see Sunni Islam). The Ministry of Justice is charged with operating the country’s Sharia courts, and the minister of justice is the country’s chief judge. In October 2007 a royal decree completely overhauled Saudi Arabia’s court system, creating two new supreme courts to replace the functions of the Supreme Council of Justice. One supreme court was to be created to oversee general courts and a second supreme court to oversee administrative courts. The effect of the decree was to strengthen the system of appeals by having higher courts review the rulings of lower courts.

Human rights groups welcomed the reforms, saying they would make Saudi Arabia’s judicial system less arbitrary. The head of each supreme court was to be appointed by the king. The Supreme Council of Justice remained in existence but its powers were greatly reduced so that it only reviews administrative issues, such as salaries of judges and their appointments. The decree also set up specialized court circuits dealing with commercial and labor law.

C

Local Government

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces, or emirates. Each is headed by a governor, or emir, who is appointed by the king. In 1993 a royal decree defined the provincial system of government, setting out the rights and responsibilities of governors. It provided for the establishment of provincial councils (composed of citizens and officials) that would meet quarterly and provide supervision and advice. Governors have historically tended to be members of the royal family. In keeping with traditional norms, their form of rule included holding a regular majlis (council or petitioning session) where citizens would come in person and present their problems to the governor. Large cities elect their own municipal governments. Towns and villages are governed by councils of elders.

D

Defense

Since the mid-1960s Saudi Arabia’s defense expenditures have increased dramatically. The country maintains two separate armies. The first is the national guard, or the white guard, which is a conglomeration of traditional tribal armies and has about 77,000 active members. In 2004 the regular armed forces included an army of 75,000 soldiers, an air force of 18,000, a navy of 15,500, and an air defense force. These forces, trained in part with U.S. assistance, are equipped with modern weapons and advanced aircraft.

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E

Political Expression

Despite the absence of political parties and other representative groups, Saudi officials contend that a wide range of opinions and interests are heard because the government operates by consulting with a broad segment of the population. However, not all segments of the population have access to these consultations, and some of those who are consulted feel that the government ignores or downplays their legitimate demands. As a result, several forms of political dissent have appeared.

First is the religious, or Islamist, opposition. The Saudi state arose in part as a result of an agreement between the ruling family and the ulama, but the interests of the two groups frequently have been at odds. Historically, the ruling Saudi family has found ways to keep high-ranking religious officials compliant. During some periods, however, Saudi rulers have felt compelled to succumb to the demands of the ulama. In addition, conservative Muslim critics outside the religious establishment have used the rhetoric of Islam to voice their opposition to the government. Another group at odds with the Saudi government has been the Shia population in the eastern part of the country. Pushed to the margins of Saudi society, Shia groups in Saudi Arabia point to a long history of oppression and neglect as part of their grievances. Both radical Islamists and Shia groups have at times expressed their opposition through the use of violence. Western-educated technocrats and women have attempted to pressure the government for change in nonviolent ways. Many of them feel constrained by the restrictions and limitations imposed by the country’s adherence to conservative Islamic practices, and they chafe at the slow pace of political, economic, and social reforms.

VII

History

Fossil remains of elephants, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, and other large animals found in parts of the Arabian Peninsula indicate that the climate could support much more vegetation between 11 million and 4 million years ago than it can today. The region’s arid climate, however, seems to date back at least 5,000 years. Prehistoric flint tools and rock drawings in various parts of the peninsula provide evidence of scattered habitation by Stone Age peoples.

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