Republic of Indonesia

E

Education

Under colonial rule, education in Indonesia was designed mainly to prepare Dutch children and the children of native elite for administrative tasks. In 1903 a primary school for Indonesian girls opened, and by 1940 a system of schools for native Indonesians existed alongside the elite Dutch system. Following independence in 1949, the new government tried to expand the educational system but was hampered by a lack of funds. In the late 1960s the government began promoting elementary education, which in Indonesia lasts for six years. Since 1990 compulsory education includes elementary schooling and three years of lower secondary schooling. An additional three years of upper secondary schooling are optional.

In the 2000 school year 28.7 million Indonesian children attended elementary schools: About 82 percent of girls and 97 percent of boys reach the fourth grade. Secondary schools are attended by 60 percent of school-age girls and 61 percent of school-age boys. In the mid-1990s some 1.6 million Indonesian students attended vocational institutes. The higher school attendance among boys reflects the values of a largely conservative, rural society, although the gap in schooling between boys and girls has begun to narrow. In 2005 some 86 percent of Indonesian females and 94 percent of males were literate. The economic crisis of the late 1990s caused some children to withdraw temporarily from school because their families could no longer afford school fees.

Indonesia has more than 50 government-operated universities and more than 1,000 private universities. The largest and most important universities are the University of Indonesia, which has campuses in Jakarta and Depok, on the Jakarta-West Java border; Gajah Mada University in Yogyakarta; Padjadjaran University in Bandung; and Hasanuddin University in Makassar. The Bandung Institute of Technology is regarded as one of Indonesia’s elite educational institutions. Atma Jaya University in Jakarta and Parahyangan University in Bandung are highly regarded private universities.

F

Way of Life

The sprawling Indonesian archipelago is home to many different ways of life, reflecting the region’s history. Before independence, the only factor uniting the islands was Dutch colonialism. Although the kingdoms of Sri Vijaya, Majapahit, and Mataram spread their influence widely throughout the islands, none of the native empires ever controlled the whole region. Nor did Buddhism or Hinduism have a significant impact in the far eastern stretches. As the country has modernized and urbanized, life in the cities has evolved new patterns, adding additional diversity to Indonesian life.

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The status of women in Indonesia is varied, and opinions about women’s roles are polarized. Most Indonesians concede that women have limited formal opportunities in social institutions, but many claim women exert considerable power within families. The Minangkabau society in western Sumatra is matrilineal—that is, property and lineage are passed down and traced through the mother’s family. However, the Minangkabau are an isolated example. In the mid-1990s women comprised less than 10 percent of managers and administrators. Feminism is largely an urban ideology in Indonesia, pursued by younger, educated women.

Men and women who live in cities generally adopt Western dress. Regionally, there are many styles of traditional dress, but most women wear a sarong (wraparound skirt or dress) and a kebaya, a fitted blouse. When participating in ceremonies, men often wear a batik shirt and a sarong skirt, along with a songkok, a black Muslim cap.

The most popular sports in Indonesia are badminton and soccer. Tennis has also gained a growing following. Several forms of martial arts, including forms that use sticks and knives, are popular in Java and Sumatra.

Rice is the staple food of most Indonesian dishes and its preparation varies between regions. The hot, spicy food from the Padang region can be found in specialized Padang restaurants throughout most of Indonesia. Sundanese food is served in West Java, while most places have a local specialty, such as grilled fish and seafood in Makassar. Traditional Indonesian drinks include an alcoholic wine (tuak) made from the red sugar of a palm tree. Islam forbids the consumption of alcohol, however, so most Indonesians drink weak black tea with food. In cities, bottled water is popular.

G

Social Issues

Indonesian society has experienced a profound shift in the location of wealth. For much of the period since independence in 1949, wealth was concentrated in rural areas, particularly beyond Java. The rural elite prospered through their control of land and through their success as crop exporters. With industrialization in and around the larger cities, however, the wealth has shifted to urban areas of Java and Bali. Wealth is now derived from manufacturing, infrastructure projects, and the services sector.

A skewed pattern of income distribution is a growing problem in Indonesia, with many Indonesians living in poverty, especially in rural areas. In 1996 the wealthiest 10 percent of Indonesians accounted for 30.3 percent of spending, while the poorest 10 percent accounted for 3.6 percent of the country’s total spending. Overall inequality is lower in Indonesia than in nearby Thailand, the Philippines, or Malaysia, largely because Indonesia’s wealthiest are still a very small proportion of the population.

Indonesia also has large differences in income distribution among its provinces. The provinces with the largest shares of the gross domestic product (GDP) are East Kalimantan, Jakarta, and Riau: East Kalimantan and Riau are rich in natural resources, and Jakarta is successful in industry and services. The poorest provinces are all in eastern Indonesia: East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa Tenggara, and Southeast Sulawesi. The government has tried to stimulate the economies of these provinces.

Many young villagers continue to leave the rural areas for the city, leaving many villages with concentrations of older people. In the cities, rapid growth has strained services and infrastructure beyond their limits, and most new migrants, unable to afford adequate housing, drift to ramshackle squatter settlements. Housing for other Indonesians—in cities and in villages—is little better. In 1995 fewer than half of all houses had a toilet, 24 percent had earthen floors, 33 percent had no electricity for lighting, and 83 percent did not have piped drinking water.

IV

Arts and Culture

Indonesian culture mixes the traditions of many civilizations and religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Southeast Asian, Polynesian, Chinese, Arabic, and Dutch. Since independence, the arts in Indonesia have been influenced by domestic politics. During the 1950s and 1960s the left-leaning Institute for People’s Culture (also known as Lekra) was very influential. With the backing of Sukarno, Indonesia’s first president, Lekra strongly resisted American cultural influence and favored socialist realism in art. After the 1965 attempt to overthrow Sukarno and the ascension to power of Suharto in 1966, there were widespread killings of many Indonesians, including members of the artistic elite. Many artists went into exile and others, such as the prominent author Pramoedya Ananta Toer, were jailed. The government fostered some of the traditional arts of Indonesia but maintained a close watch on many independent strands of contemporary art. Permits were required before plays could be staged and books were banned with little explanation. As a result, during the Suharto years tensions permeated the arts in modern Indonesia, while Indonesian artists in exile were an aging but active presence. Suharto stepped down in May 1998, and artistic activity has flowered in Indonesia under his more liberal successors.

A

Literature

Written literature exists for very few of Indonesia’s languages, although oral traditions, including prose and poetry, are very strong. Indian literature is influential, particularly in Old Javanese writings, which date from about ad 1000. Modern Javanese literature dates from the early 1700s and combines native, Indian, and Muslim traditions. Writing in Malay flourished after becoming the official language of the Indonesian people in 1928. Malay writings were closely associated with growing nationalism, and Sumatran writers of the time, such as Muhammad Yamin, were particularly influential. After independence, a group of writers known as the Generation of 1945 (Angkatan 45) emerged. They were direct and fierce and were epitomized by the poet Chairil Anwar. In the 1950s and 1960s ideological politics polarized the writing community and Lekra succeeded in pushing writers to adopt the style of socialist realism.

Perhaps the most famous writer of modern Indonesian literature is Pramoedya Ananta Toer. After the failed 1965 coup the government imprisoned Pramoedya because of his Communist links; he was released from jail in 1979 but placed under city arrest in Jakarta. His Buru Quartet, composed of Bumi Manusia (1980; This Earth of Mankind, 1991), Anak Semua Bangsa (1980; Child of All Nations, 1993), Jejak Langkah (1985; Footsteps, 1994), and Rumah Kaca (1988; House of Glass, 1992), tells the story of Indonesian nationalism through the character Minke, a Dutch-educated Javanese. The quartet, which was banned in Indonesia, became well known internationally.

Another internationally acclaimed writer is Romo Mangun. His Burung-Burung Manyar (The Weaverbirds, 1991) won the Southeast Asia Writers’ Award but was frowned on by the government for its critical view of Indonesian history. Mochtar Lubis’s Sendja di Djakarta (1970; Twilight in Djakarta, 1983) tells a story of corruption and decline in Jakarta in the 1960s. Other well-known writers include Achdiat Karta Mihardja, Umar Kayam, and Budi Darma. Indonesia’s best-known poets include Rendra, Subagio Sastrowardojo, Goenawan Mohamad, Sapardi Djoko Damono, and Sutardji Calzoum Bachri.

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