Conservatism

I

Introduction

Conservatism, a state of mind and political philosophy that is generally averse to rapid change and innovation and strives for balance and order, while avoiding extremes. Originally conservatism arose as a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment. Conservatives advocated belief in faith over reason, tradition over free inquiry, hierarchy over equality, collective values over individualism, and divine or natural law over secular law. At a given time in a given society, conservatism emphasizes the merits of the status quo and endorses the prevailing distribution of power, wealth, and social standing. Political conservative thought, however, has reconciled itself with constitutional democracy and individual rights, as well as with prudent and orderly social and economic change.

II

Origins

Conservatism received its classic formulation in the works of the British statesman Edmund Burke, notably his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), in which he rejected the principles of the French Revolution (1789-1799) and presented a comprehensive philosophy of society and politics. Burke viewed society as an organic whole, with individuals performing various roles and functions. In this society a natural elite—by virtue of birth, wealth, and education—is supposed to provide the leadership. The community is held together by venerable customs and traditions; gradual changes can be made, but only when they have gained wide acceptance.

Burke rejected the principles of equality, popular representation, and popular sovereignty. He also rejected the universal franchise and majority rule (the notion that a numerical majority of the citizenry should be empowered to make decisions). He advocated order, balance, and cooperation in society; restraints on government; and, above all, the supremacy of law—natural, divine, and customary. Burke did allow for limited governmental controls calculated to avoid malfunctions and frictions among the various groups and to moderate economic strife and competition. He was particularly anxious to avoid wide differences—extreme wealth on the one hand and poverty on the other. See British Political and Social Thought.

III

The Conservative Party in Britain

British conservative doctrine and the Conservative Party that evolved after the mid-19th century remained attached to parliamentary and constitutional democracy. Gradual extension of the franchise, social legislation, and better cooperation between the poor and the rich became part of the conservative tradition.

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In the 20th century the Conservative Party accepted and even initiated economic controls by the state and broadened the social responsibility of the state in matters of health, education, and economic security. After World War II the Conservatives went so far as to accept the nationalization of key industries that had been instituted by the Labour (Socialist) Party (see Labour Party) and to endorse fully the tenets of the welfare state. Only after 1979 did the Conservative Party begin to reconsider the practices of state controls, welfare measures, and nationalization.

IV

Conservatism in Europe

Many conservative movements and groups have flourished in continental Europe, but no conservative parties similar to the British model in organization, doctrine, mass membership, and attachment to parliamentary democracy have ever developed. European conservatives, until the end of the 19th century, rejected democratic principles and institutions, including, in some cases, participation in elections and the universal franchise. They opted instead for monarchies (as in France from 1814 to 1848) or for authoritarian government (as with Bonapartism between 1799 and 1814 and between 1851 and 1870). Some of the Continental conservative movements ultimately gave their support to authoritarian and totalitarian movements—for example, fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany—in the years between 1920 and the end of World War II in 1945. Authoritarian government existed in Spain until about 1975.

A dominant conservative doctrine in many European countries, notably in France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, has been corporatism. This was inspired by the social doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church expressed in two encyclicals, Rerum novarum (1891) and Quadragesimo anno (1931). In the name of social justice and order, corporatism advocates a close collaboration between employers and workers under the direction of the state in all matters regarding conditions of work, wages, prices, production, and exchange. Its aim is to substitute “corporate” (that is, collective) considerations for the free play of the market and for competition. After World War I ended in 1918, corporatism was institutionalized in various forms in Spain, Italy, and Portugal.

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