Army

I

Introduction

Army, military land forces of a nation, assembled, drilled, disciplined, and equipped for offense and defense in maneuvers in warfare. The term may refer to the entire body of military personnel in a nation, or to a specific unit under a military commander.

The composition of armies often reflects the attitudes toward war of the civilizations and societies they represent. In ancient Greece, for example, men up to the age of 60 were expected to serve. More importance was attached to military than to civil office. In ancient Rome, the citizen-soldier army of the Republic changed to a professional force as social conditions changed and the Republic gave way to the empire.

II

Rise of Ancient Armies

In prehistoric and early historic times, armies as such did not exist; armed forces consisted of groups engaged sporadically in combat for the purpose of defending or acquiring land desired for hunting or pasture. The rise of permanent settlements, however, in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley and along the Nile was paralleled by the employment of citizen-soldiers to protect them.

A

Ancient Middle East

In Mesopotamia standing armies using spears and bows were created as early as 3200 bc, and about 2500 bc warfare was revolutionized with the introduction of chariots drawn by asses and horses (see Cavalry). In Egypt in the 20th century bc, Sesostris I maintained a regular army—well equipped, disciplined, and salaried. He divided his kingdom into 36 military provinces, established a national militia, allocated land for the support of the military, and used this army both offensively and defensively. In the mid-6th century bc, the Persians, under Cyrus the Great, refined the concept of the standing army by promoting the deployment of both infantry and cavalry and establishing a system of discipline.

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B

Greece

The Greek city-states maintained bodies of militia capable of being united into one great army. The superior organization and strict discipline of these citizen-soldiers, or hoplites, helped achieve the great victories won at such battles as Marathon and Plataea during the Persian Wars of the 5th century bc.

Around the late 8th century bc, the Spartans introduced the concept of the phalanx, the first important tactical formation. Primarily defensive in its original form, it consisted of eight rows of heavily armored shield-bearing spearmen standing shoulder to shoulder in rectangular ranks. Although capable of withstanding cavalry charges, it was slow in attack and awkward in traversing difficult terrain. In contrast, the Athenians developed the use of cavalry to provide a cover in front of the army and to harass the enemy's rear.

In the 4th century bc, Philip II of Macedonia established a large standing army in which he added cavalry forces to the phalanx and introduced the use of the long pike. His son, Alexander the Great, who destroyed the Persian Empire, organized the first army supply system and established light infantry as a link between phalanx and cavalry. The use of archers, light catapults, siege engines, a tactical smoke- and sound-signal system, and a medical service were important contributions to a more sophisticated army organization.

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